William Faulkners Changing World of the South - Essay Example

Running Head: World of the South Please – You have received twice the sources requested and almost twice the pages you paid for. This is very unusual and I am writing to let you know not to expect this with every order. William Faulkner’s Changing World of the South Student name Instructor name Course name Date Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine how William Faulkner’s work served to introduce or examine an important issue in history or society. The issue explored is the constraint of the black man by the American white man after slavery. Rather than giving the black man a precedence he didn’t enjoy in those times, Faulkner illustrated how these constraints existed under the surface in the realm of ideas just as the black man physically existed only in the shadows regardless of his own light. By examining the social theories regarding the representation and constraint of the ‘other’ as they are examined by notables in the field such as Edward Said and Ziauddin Sardar and then applying these theories to Faulkner’s short story “Ad Astra,” one can begin to see how these theories can be traced in action in contemporary media. As the world enters into more troubled times with nations struggling against nations, it is more important than ever to understand how to achieve a more stable and in depth understanding of those we might simply wish to classify as ‘other’. William Faulkner’s World of the South William Faulkner (1897-1962) is one of America’s most highlighted and most unlikely authors. Eventually producing 26 books and a difficult to count number of short stories, Faulkner’s stories were full of such artistry and character that he has become recognized as a giant in world literature. “Faulkner accomplished in a little over a decade more artistically than most writers accomplish over a lifetime of writing” (Padgett, 2005). His creation of the mythical Yoknapatawpha County, along with all the people in it, painted a precise picture of what life was like in the turn of the century American south. Rather than portraying his characters in keeping with the generally accepted and widely held view of the stereotypical farmer, for instance, Faulkner presented his characters, good and bad, with a strong degree of sensitivity and understanding (Cowley, 1977). Although Faulkner has incorporated a number of themes and issues within his writings, one of the more prevalent is his exploration of the true nature of the black man as an individual human being capable of great strength and resilience. This is significant as it was a time in which most black men (and women) were viewed as somehow subhuman, having just recently escaped the shackles of slavery yet still confined within those of ignorance, poverty and blatant oppression. This impression laid the foundation for today’s race relations as well as illustrated the degree to which American attitudes affected attitudes in other parts of the world. As these concepts become applied to other races, such as those of Middle Eastern ethnicities, it is necessary to understand America’s approach to what it considers an inferior race as well as its influence on other nations. An examination of Faulkner’s short story “Ad Astra,” supported by research from experts, enables one to understand how the American experience contaminated the perception of black men both in America, causing long-term racial tensions, and in other parts of the world by association. Literature Review Several years after Faulkner’s death, a man named Edward Said published a book entitled Orientalism (1979). In this book, he attempts to prove how the idea of the Orient was nothing more than a creation of the Western mind in much the same way as the educated yet ‘inferior’ black man was largely a conception of the American white man regardless of his nationality or experience. The way Said presents his argument could be said to echo the ‘Africanism’ of the black man illustrated in Faulkner’s short story. The introduction to Said’s book essentially presents his argument. He starts by illustrating how the Orient has become something that is not a “free subject of thought or action” because of the more imaginary concept of Orientalism and then demonstrates how the “European culture gained in strength and identity by setting itself off against the Orient as a sort of surrogate and even underground self” (Said, 1979, p. 3). Each of these ideas is further explored throughout the remainder of the chapter. Opening with an argument regarding the use of the term Orientalism, Said makes three observations. The first one centers on the idea that the term ‘Orient’ refers not to the truth of the region, but rather to an idea that has been developed in the minds of Europeans that tends to group all individuals of the Middle East and East as belonging to a single cultural and religious sector. These made-up concepts of the Orient are so pervasive, he argues, that they are invisible to the Western mind. This argument is supported by the theory of deconstruction in which it is suggested “authors cannot fully understand what they have written: the deep ground of the ideas which underlies the text is forever invisible and inaccessible to the author” (Chandler, 1995: 228). Although not based on actual truth, the concept of Orientalism is ingrained within the Western white man’s culture in a variety of ways. Said’s second observation regarding the use of the term Orient is that this term identifies anyone of this area of the world to be automatically something ‘other.’ The concept of the ‘other’ is almost always associated with something inferior or less civilized. “It was in its encounter with Islam that the West first developed its vision of the Orient as an unfathomable, exotic and erotic place where mysteries dwell and cruel and barbaric scenes are staged” (Sardar, 1999: 2). However, as these impressions were erroneous from the start, the inferiority of the culture found was only to be found in the minds of the conquering colonizers. Said’s third observation regarding this term is the degree to which it has become an elemental part of the West’s vocabulary, imagery and thought regarding anything said or considered to be Oriental. Said concludes, “There exists here an almost unanimous consensus that politically he [the Oriental] does not exist, and when it is allowed that he does, it is either as a nuisance or as an Oriental. The web of racism, cultural stereotypes, political imperialism, dehumanizing ideology holding in the Arab or the Muslim is very strong indeed” (Said, 1979: 27). The ideas brought forward by Said are supported by current research as well. Bruce Bawer (2002) illustrates how the concept of the ‘other’ exists within the general culture as it concerns those who live within it as well as those who live without it. He brings the context of the conversation of the ‘other’ or ‘Oriental’ down to the individual level by pointing out how Edward Said’s life as an Oriental living in the Western world reflected the concepts of the other that he’d written about. At the same time, Bawer helps to pull out some important points about this concept from Said’s books and other writings. “Ultimately, Said’s thesis [in Orientalism] amounts to a truism: that people look at the ‘other’ through their own eyes, and tend to judge alien cultures by their own culture’s standards” (Bawer, 2002: 621). Instead of insisting that the concepts brought forward by Said are applicable only to the ‘Oriental’ as ‘other’, Bawer is suggesting that ‘other’ can be applied to any group depending upon the perspective of the viewer. These ‘outside’ cultures do not necessarily have to exist in some geographically distant region, but can instead exist within and between the spaces of the Western world, such as in areas where numerous people of a particular nationality or belief system live – areas populated predominantly by Jews, Africans, Chinese or any other group that can be named as such. According to other authors, such as Anne McClintock (1995), this concept is easily applied to the individual, regardless of whether he is surrounded by a like-featured community and can even be broken down, through the concepts of postmodernism, to apply to parts of the self. The effectiveness of this method to suppress and demonize potentially threatening cultural or societal groups and individuals can and has been used as a means of social control, consistently reinforcing a traditionally white Christian male perspective of how the world should work. As it exists in today’s world, Orientalism has become a new buzz word now applied to any who might somehow be also labeled ‘terrorist’ based solely on the color of their skin. These concepts can be traced in the ways in which the Muslim society, and Iraqi people as a whole, has been portrayed in the media, especially since the Twin Towers were attacked in New York on September 11, 2001. The people of the Middle East have continuously been portrayed as either threatening or inferior in some way to those of Western cultures by using the same techniques once used to compartmentalize blacks and people of the far East. Because greater power and less effort is required to deal with the merely inferior, this is often the stance adopted. By choosing to portray a large group of Hajj pilgrims at their prayers in a feature story regarding their protest on the timing of Saddam’s execution on the first of one of their holy days, the Western media illustrates their docile nature. The title of the story is “Hanging angers Arab hajj pilgrims” but the picture is taken from far above the crowd and provides little detail as to what is actually happening within the crowd. The resulting impression is not of an angry crowd in protest as one might expect, but rather of a large group of rather passive sheep as the mass of white clad backs bent in reverent prayer becomes the most visible object. Figure 1: Hajj pilgrims at prayer “Hanging angers Arab hajj pilgrims.” (31 December, 2006). Just as the literature thus far has suggested, these Muslims are portrayed as powerless and faceless. As Said suggests, this impression is formed not on the actual realities of how these people feel or what they are capable of, but instead is formed on appearances alone. The somewhat condescending attitude of the West holds such seemingly ‘blind’ devotion in the middle of a protest as ‘quaint’ and ‘simplistic’ without bothering to take a closer look at reality. As another photo of the same event taken from near street level shows, these people are anything but passive, ignorant sheep. Figure 2: Hajj pilgrims “Saddam execution angers pilgrims.” (30 December 2006). The photo captures a traditional stone-throwing ritual from a human height. The man in the forefront has just released his stone, leaving his hand as the foremost element and his hand still shaped into something of a claw. This approach to the scene, presented as it was by the Al-Jezeera publication and thus aligned with the ‘other’ rather than the white man, shows both the reverence of this individual for his faith as well as the potential for this individual to raise his hand in anger toward those who have determined to ignore his culture and beliefs. Findings Whether discussing the Oriental or merely the ‘other’ as an entity that is not white Christian male Westerner, research indicates there are several similarities in the ways in which entire groups of people and individuals who meet the superficial exterior features of these groups are actually constrained within the ranks of the white European ideals. As this is illustrated through Said’s work, this process begins as widespread consensus opinion is formed based on already biased ‘dominant’ culture opinion – the white man telling the white man what he understood of what he saw, regardless of the correctness of his interpretation and incapable of considering another viewpoint is possible. What the literature reveals is that groups of people or individuals, characterized by immediate physical general characteristics, are constrained within general definitions of passivity and inferiority as a result of white ideals and beliefs. Thus, three key features of Orientalism as a concept of constraint upon the ‘other’ emerge as definition based on appearances only, a refusal to acknowledge value and a tendency to relegate the ‘other’ to a faceless, mindless shadow. Discussion Although he wrote “Ad Astra” almost 50 years before the term Orientalism and its inherent elements was identified, many of the ideas brought forward in Said’s sociological study are present within the short story as it is applied to a black man. In this brief story of a group of American soldiers brought together by war, Faulkner develops an allegory for the brotherhood of men that explores the possible relationships that might exist between men of differing races. This comparison is established almost from the beginning as the story opens upon three American soldiers, one Irish soldier and a dark-skinned subadar, an Indian rank that is approximately equal to the rank of an English Captain (The British Library Board, n.d.). The way in which the subadar is compared to the others in the story illustrates that the reason black and white are not brothers in America is due to the American obsession with exterior skin color rather than focusing on the true attributes of the man inside the skin. Because of his skin color, he is accepted as a kind of lesser officer than the American and Irish pilots as they drag him along on their drinking binge in keeping with the first of the three features of Orientalism identified in other studies. Although the subadar shares a great deal of philosophical wisdom and insight with his fellow soldiers, only the German captive is capable of understanding and valuing some of what he says, meeting with the second element identified in Orientalism. Although Faulkner shows the subadar to be uncommonly wise against the backdrop of the drunk soldiers, he remains for much of the story merely a part of the backdrop, his darkness shadowing the story as even he acknowledges that in the face of the white man, he can do nothing to improve his people. This final element of the Orientalist concept is emphasized by the comparison Faulkner makes between the free subadar and the captured German. The German and the subadar characters are linked to each other through a similarity in their physical appearance. They are separated from the other characters in the story in every way possible from its opening lines. They are both described as being the only two individuals who are dressed in crisp, neat uniforms – the subadar in “trick major’s pips” and the German as “rigid, soldierly, with every button in place, with his unblemished bandage and fresh razor cuts” (417). This bandage is immediately linked in appearance to that of the subadar’s turban, the only two characters with anything on their heads. Later in the story, the narrator even mentions this similarity between the characters as he describes their calm serenity in the midst of a bar fight, “the both of them turbaned like prophets in the Old Testament” (426). This indicates the level of these character’s wisdom as compared to the foolishness of their drunken fellows when seen in hindsight, but these elements of the characters had not been noticed earlier nor considered in the general understanding of who these men were. These characters, the German and the subadar, seem to appear in the story as if out of nowhere as the narrator, at one point, simply mentions their presence without any preamble explaining how they came to be a part of the party. This begins to set up the concept that both men are mere shadows to the other soldiers. Although they each come from an affluent background – the German as a Baron of the German court who has renounced his birthright and the subadar as a Prince who also turned his back on his heritage – neither character is given a unique name within the story, instead being referred to simply by how others categorize them. This is significantly different from the other characters, all of whom are referred to by a personal name with the exception of the narrator himself, who is made individual through the personal ‘I’. While the German is white, he is a prisoner and does not, therefore, need to be acknowledged by the other members of the scene. The subadar, on the other hand, is neither prisoner nor low-born, but because of the color of his skin and the preconceptions regarding black men the other soldiers have brought with them, he is not seen as a potential ‘mate’ nor do the other soldiers seem to consider that he might have something interesting to say. Although the subadar can also be compared favorably to the character Bland, he does not gain the type of equal status with his fellow soldiers that he is able to establish immediately with the captured and thus already subjugated German. Bland remembers the black man from his days at Oxford, but reminds everyone that even though the subadar could “attend the schools among the gentleborn, […] he cannot hold their commission, because gentility is a matter of color and not lineage or behavior” (413). “In these stories, there is frequently a background narrator who implies that the black characters involved in the plot are at least as important and as good as the white, but because the world values color over content, the characters of color find themselves socially disadvantaged” (Martin, 1993). The subadar is reminded of this inequality frequently through the treatment he receives by the others and as he is continuously restricted from exercising his rank or knowledge in the face of white determination. This can be seen in the words of the MP, who “watched the subadar, upon his face an expression savage, restrained and cold. […] ‘When I came to this country, […] I thought niggers were niggers. But now I’ll be damned if I know what they are’” (422). While Faulkner is attempting to wipe away some of the effects of Orientalism, or perhaps more appropriately for the current application the term ‘Africanism’ would be more appropriate, he nevertheless manages to demonstrate how the concepts identified by Said such as use of vocabulary and imagery are regularly employed by the most common of soldiers as a means of keeping the ‘other’ in his allotted subjugated place. Just as Said attempted to reveal the ‘truth’ regarding Orientalism and the various ways in which it blinds the West to the true value and rich cultural diversity of the East, Faulkner continuously attempted to demonstrate the value and beauty of the black man when he is able to move beyond the constraints set by the American whites. As the German and the subadar begin conversing, they appear to be the only characters with anything substantial or meaningful going on within their heads. These two characters are the only two who do not seem too traumatized by their sudden dramatic changes in status – the German is now a captive rather than a member of a mighty nation, the subadar is now a lowly servant to the whites rather than a prince of a subjugated kingdom – to discuss the larger events that are happening in the world. Part of their conversation links them immediately as they are both familiar with the geographical territory from which the German comes, share a similar taste in music and demonstrate an ability to discuss things in terms of a common brotherhood. Bland’s despair at the end of the story serves to emphasize the calm acceptance of the subadar in realizing that his people, indeed the whole world, has fallen victim to an idea that cannot be changed simply by stating the truth. Conclusion Through his short stories, particularly in his characterizations, William Faulkner was able to demonstrate a sociological idea that would take many more years before it was more fully explored, studied and recognized as a source of separation. Edward Said started the discussion in revealing his insights regarding the elements of Orientalism in which individuals, based upon their physical resemblance to a particular race or concept of race, are judged as intellectually and culturally inferior by the white men that come to dominate as a result of this perception. By ignoring evidence of individualism and wisdom within these ‘inferior’ races and insisting upon grouping them all into a single mold, the white man eliminates much of the possibility for these groups to break out of the mold established not by their own culture, but by the ideas of the white man. In each case, the black man, the Oriental and the Muslim are conceived of by the white man as somehow ignorant, uncivilized and unworthy of respect. These conceptions are formed by what the white man knows of these ‘others’, knowledge gained through eyes already conditioned to find something weaker, less capable and therefore no longer requiring further attention or attempts toward better understanding. As Faulkner demonstrates in his story, though, once one is forced to the realization that this ‘knowledge’ of the ‘other’ is erroneous, perhaps through direct personal experience such as found in “Ad Astra,” the possibility exists for a more realistic and in depth understanding between groups and, if McClintock is right regarding the fracturing of the self, a greater harmony within. References Bawer, Bruce. (Winter, 2002). “Edward W. Said, Intellectual.” The Hudson Review. Vol. 5, N. 4: 620-634. Bruce Bawer critiques Edward Said’s ideas concerning Orientalism, pointing out how the researcher was equally biased by his own background just as he accuses other authors of being regarding his subject. Although Bawer indicates several problems with Said’s theories, he generally supports the idea that people tend to judge others, meaning all other cultural or ethnic groups that are immediately identified through some identifiable similarity, by what they choose to see. This concept is central to the arguments made in this research. British Library Board (The). (2006). “India Office Records: Family History Sources.” The British Library. Available March 25, 2006 from The British Library Board provides a glossary of terms related to ranks and social positions within British India. This provides some idea of the comparative rank of the subadar, illustrating that it was relatively equal to that of the soldiers he is with and highlighting the degree to which he is treated differently. Chandler, Daniel. (1995). The Act of Writing. Aberystwyth, University of Wales. Dr. Chandler’s book provides explanation of many of the different tools of writing and of textual analysis. In this introduction, he also includes a discussion of the deconstruction approach to literature. This discussion helps to clarify ideas expressed in the above research, particularly when it is assumed that the author of any given work is necessarily at least partially blind to the ideas contained within. Cowley, Malcolm. (1977). “Introduction.” The Portable Faulkner. New York: Penguin Books. Malcolm Cowley introduces the work of William Faulkner at the beginning of a collection of his short stories. Within this introduction, he provides a brief biography of the author and a general characterization of Faulkner’s works. This characterization helps to establish that any similarity of Faulkner’s works to later sociological theories were the result of careful observation and deliberate artistry rather than some form of happy accident. Faulkner, William. (1977). “Ad Astra.” The Portable Faulkner. New York: Penguin Books: 411-432. This short story by William Faulkner provides the basis of connection between the literary fiction writer and the later complicated and often confusing theories of modern sociologists. The story not only helps develop an understanding of the past, but helps to inform the present and suggest solutions for the future in its encouragement to form more realistic and informed understanding between individuals. “Hanging angers Arab hajj pilgrims.” (December 31, 2006). CNN World News. This is a photograph meant to accompany a story printed in an American newspaper regarding the execution of Saddam Hussein in Iraq. The article discussed the various ways in which some Iraqi people were upset by the sentence and act of public execution and reports about a particular protest event that was held against it. The image depicts an ‘Oriental’ approach taken toward the Iraqis as it is revealed by Said. Martin, Reginald. (Spring 1993). “Faulkner’s Southern Reflections: The Black on the Back of the Mirror in ‘Ad Astra’.” African American Review. In his examination of Faulkner’s writings, Reginald Martin illustrates how Faulkner’s effectiveness in demonstrating the place of the black man in his society was in allowing him to melt into the shadows yet also illustrating how he was not the lowly subhuman he had been defined as within the greater society. This discussion helps to illustrate the sensitivity with which Faulkner addressed the topic as well as informed the potential solution to the issue. McClintock, Anne. (1995). Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context. New York and London: Routledge. Anne McClintock examines the relationships of imperialism in her book, illustrating how the ideas of Edward Said regarding Orientalism are applicable not only to racial groups, but are extended to incorporate anything that is different. This can include social class, gender and sexuality as well as internal elements of the self. This book brings the present argument into a more personal framework as it suggests that the processes at work in the greater society are also at work within the self and must be understood in order to achieve inner peace and harmony. Padgett, John B. (2005). “William Faulkner.” University of Mississippi English Department. Available August 20, 2008 from John Padgett is the author of an introductory website that provides a relatively detailed biography of William Faulkner. The article is helpful in establishing Faulkner’s intelligence, understanding and widespread academic acclaim. “Saddam execution angers pilgrims.” (December 30, 2006). Al-Jezeera. This is a photograph that was intended to accompany an article written and published by Iraqis covering the same incident that was covered by an American newspaper. The photograph will be used to compare with the American image to illustrate how the concepts of Orientalism discussed in Said’s book and through other literature continue to be applied in contemporary media. Said, Edward. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Edward Said presents his theories regarding how the Western world maintains dominance over other cultures by constraining these other cultures, particularly what is referred to as the ‘Orient’, within erroneous ideals created through Western misconceptions of superficial observation. His theory forms the basis of the arguments used for this research. Sardar, Ziauddin. (1999). Orientalism. Buckingham: Open University Press. Sardar examines the concepts and theories brought forward by Edward Said, placing them within an independently researched history and examining their strengths and weaknesses. In doing so, he expands the term to incorporate anyone different as the ‘other’ in comparison to the colonial power ideal. He also illustrates how this ideal and constraining definition is carried forward through the use of modern technology such as television and print media. This argument both supports and expands the research of Edward Said to help inform the present research and helps in applying these principles to more modern representations. Read More