Nelson Mandelas Leadership - Essay Example

Nelson Mandela’s Leadership Give of the Write the Table of Contents Page Number Introduction ........ 1 Review of Literature ....... 2 Discussion ....... 6 Applying Nelson Mandela’s Leadership Qualities to the Hospitality Industry ...... 7 The Importance of Leadership in Providing Service Quality ...... 7 Transformational Leadership ...... 8 Empowerment and Motivation ...... 9 Conforming With All Individuals and Multicultural Management ....... 10 Flexibility and Crisis Management ....... 12 Ethics in Leadership ....... 13 Conclusion ....... 14 References ....... 15 Appendix 1 ....... 17 Appendix 2 ....... 18 Introduction Nelson Mandela, South Africa’s first black president is a messenger of peace and love. He stands out as a unique personality in the present-day world where freedom struggles and internal conflicts are fought through terrrorism. It is important to know how history played a part in developing the great leader, in order to fully understand his unique leadership style in South Africa’s struggle for freedom (Archbishop Tutu, 2007: viii). Known as “Madiba”, he established a feeling of brotherhood with all humans, with discrimination against none (Mangcu, 2007: xv). According to Connor and Mackenzie-Smith (2003: 59), “leadership is an active interaction with the world and involves bringing into being new possibilities from within real constraints”. Mandela’s leadership was based on his philosophy and way of thinking. His cause and persuasive methods were able to win him many followers and ultimately, adversaries also became his friends. In his autobiography Long Walk to Freedom, Mandela states that “South Africa will be free only after it achieves the freedom to be free”. He believed that by achieving physical freedom alone, liberty was not possible. It was also essential to support the freedom of others, and live the right life which gives self-respect and confidence (Mandela, 1994: 685). An outline of Nelson Mandela’s life story: Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela’s father was a Xhosa chief of a small village near the capital Transkei in South Africa, where he was born in 1918. Africans living in their own country were discriminated against by the white minority rulers. As a leader of the African resistance that struggled for freedom from apartheid, Mandela was imprisoned for several years. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his struggle against apartheid and was elected as the first black president of South Africa (Mandela, 1994). Nelson Mandela set up law practice in Johannesburg in 1952. Earlier, in 1944, he joined the African National Congress (ANC) which included non-Africans. They tried for resolution in the conflict by a peaceful struggle against aparthed, using non-violent means. The state responded with violence against the Africans. Mandela was elected president of the African National Congress in 1951 and worked for the elimination of discriminatory laws. He led the ANC resistance movement in 1951-1952, was banned and jailed several times (Mandela, 1994). From 1961, the non-violent resistance was given up for violent methods. Mandela was jailed for five years because he illegally travelled to free Africa where he tried to gather more support against the white government of South Africa. Following this, the next twenty seven years were spent in prison on charges of treason, and he was viewed as a martyr (Holland, 2002: 21). From 1982, six years of solitary confinement followed, when he suffered from tuberculosis. Racial discrimination and civil disturbance became worse, and South Africa was isolated by other countries. F.W. de Klerk, the President of South Africa and leader of the National party, was pressurised into releasing Nelson Mandela. On 11th February1990, Nelson Mandela was released from Verster Prison. In 1991 Mandela once again took over the presidency of the African National Congress. Averting a civil war, a democratic government was established in late 1991 by a mutliparty convention. Mandela and deKlerk won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, for leading the negotiations. In April, 1994 South Africa became a democracy, and Mandela was elected president. His commanding qualities and ability to bring agreement among diverse groups were the key aspects of his leadership while calming civil unrest and developing strategies for improving the country’s economy (Mandela, 1994). The purpose of this paper is to study the leadership qualities of the world statesman Nelson Mandela, by reviewing current literature on the subject. Further, it is proposed to discuss aspects of his leadership as applicable to the hospitality industry, and identify lessons from the leader’s unique characteristics to improve one’s own leadership style and behaviors. Review of Literature From Nelson Mandela’s biographical data certain personality traits are specially noteworthy: such as the ability to command respect and to bring consensus among diverse groups. These are some important qualities of his leadership as observed from the time he was president of the African National Congress to other key leadership posts, culminating in his presidency of South Africa. Mandela’s personality cannot be analysed in terms of the presence of traits in varying levels of degrees, and he is also seen to have contradictory qualities which counter each other (Lieberfeld, 2003: 229), such as a strong conviction in peaceful methods of protest, but resorting to violence when it was necessary. Though peacemakers are normally third party mediators who do not belong to either of the groups which are in conflict, it is seen that partisan negotiators such as Nelson Mandela, who belong to one of the parties can also act as peacemaker. The personality of the freedom fighters plays a crucial role in the successful use of non-violent techniques for negotiating peace. Mandela’s personal self-identity, interpersonal orientation, and political outlook were distinctive aspects of his leadership in peacemaking. They exist alongside characteristics which are basically found among all successful peacemakers and negotiators. (Lieberfeld, 2003: 229). For the purpose of making his political and social convictions a reality, Mandela worked more as a politician, and not as a peacemaker. Further, while Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Archbishop Desmond Tutu “mobilized support for liberation movements on the basis of religion, Mandela has never been a prophet, holy man, or, despite profound personal sacrifice, a religious martyr” (Buthelezi, 2002: 101). He changed his conciliatory approach if it did not work. Mandela gave up peaceful means of protesting against apartheid, when it only resulted in the government shooting nonviolent demonstrators at Sharpeville, massacreing innocent people indiscriminately. Mandela planned and led a campaign of sabotage and guerilla warfare. This was done to pressurise the government into agreeing to direct negotiations with the ANC. Some authors claim that South Africa would have gained freedom from apartheid more quickly if it had remained purely nonviolent (Presbey, 2006: 141). However, South Africans themselves strongly feel that military action employed in the freedom fight helped in achieving peace faster. Mandela is observed to have the qualities of both “an effective partisan peacemaker as well as a successful mediator”, which is considered as the main reason for South Africa achieving a peacefully negotiated settlement for apartheid (Lieberfeld, 2003: 230). Making changes in the country’s political structure was exceedingly difficult. Gradually, dialogues and negotiations that Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders held with the government, helped to convince the ruling party of white elites that the ANC leaders’ goal was not revenge or destruction of the whites. “The traits that make Mandela an effective integrative mediator such as self-confidence, expertise in persuasive debate, patience and persistence, self-control, authoritative bearing, empathetic capacities, and ability to win others’ confidence and respect” are also believed to be the basis for his formidable ability for negotiation (Lieberfeld, 2003: 247). Mandela’s leadership style is to lead by being a servant first. The old type of leadership based on a hierarchical framework was broken by him (Adair, 2002: 332). Though other revolutionary leaders like Oliver Tambo and Thabo Mbeki were also involved in the negotiations for a peaceful settlement, Nelson Mandela stands out above them. This is due to his other key leadership qualities which are: a combination of complex intellectual abilities which enabled him to play the different sometimes contrasting roles of national leader, competitive negotiator, and mediator (Lieberfeld, 2003: 246). According to Burns (2004: 198), “Some more of Mandela’s traits indicate a cooperative and integrative orientation, particularly his low interest in personal power and sympathy for the less powerful”. Moral leaders like Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and others transformed their societies with the power of values to inspire people to rise to the occassion. They took up the challenge to oppose wrongfully established foreign power. Through remarkable leadership, they mobilized followers to seek remedies for their grievances, so that complete and beneficial changes resulted in society. Nelson Mandela’s transformational leadership based on justice for all, was fully supported by his followers. Another aspect of Mandela’s transfomational style of leadership was that he conveyed emotional messages in order to motivate and urge his followers. His charisma and charm drew increasing numbers of people to his side, both supporters and adversaries. This was also due to Mandela’s concerned interest in others and the ability to promote intellectual thinking. His style of leadership was participative, democratic and focused on followers, for example, he ensured that all consultations that he participated in were multi-racial. He was also directive, urging fellow black South Africans to forget the past (Bass & Riggio, 2005: 230). Though Nelson Mandela led the fight against apartheid and had opposing views to his adversaries, at the same time he could agree with them that their fears were real, and solving their problem was equally important. This is observed to be because of his advanced intellectual capacity. Szayna (2000: 160) states that Mandela’s insistence on a multi-ethnic South Africa, in which the whites would also live without facing discrimination, and would be represented in the new government formed by the black majority, became acceptabe to the minority whites. Based on his conviction that both he and his adversaries were fundamentally alike, he could create mutual understanding through interpersonal rapport. To make peace with the enemy, he believed through innate wisdom, that it was essential to make the enemy one’s partner (Adair, 2002: 331). “Nelson Mandela’s story is one of outstanding moral courage against seemingly impossible odds, of determination to destroy the evil of apartheid, and - above all - of tireless efforts to bring about reconciliation in his homeland” (Adair, 2002: 328). From Mandela’s autobiography it is observed that at particular events in his youth, such as in his conflicts with his guardian and on being expelled from University for leading a student strike, he had not negotiated for compromises, due to his hasty impulsiveness. Over a period of several years particularly during his twenty-seven year imprisonment, he learned to use tact in negotiations. Mandela had the capability to stir up the country to fight for the cause against racism and discrimination. Other important factors in his basic nature were: emotional control, focus on the task to be completed, high self-confidence and belief in good outcomes, careful planning for achieving the goal, faith in his own and others’ capabilities to make changes possible. At the Robben Island prison he successfully protested against work quotas, taking advantage of slowdowns; and this convinced him of the importance of being unrelenting when dealing with authorities. An example of his firmness in never giving up his cause: before the 1994 elections, he was stubborn about his demands, during negotiations with the white president of South Africa: F.W. de Klerk and his National party (Lieberfeld, 2003: 246-247). As an optimist, Mandela had great confidence in humanity. He was also the epitome of strength of mind and magnanimity. When released from prison, though he was deeply regretful of the long wasted years, his magnanimity and greatness of spirit shone through in his reconciliatory approach. Mandela’s vision was a democratic society with liberty for all, where harmony and equal opportunities prevailed for all persons. In the 1994 elections, he encouraged generosity of spirit and giving the white minority “confidence and security” (Adair, 2002: 328). Nelson Mandela believed that for South Africa to progress, it should participate in the process of globalisation. His strategies for economic growth of the country have been further developed by his successors. Nathan (2005: 363) states that recovery has been taking place in a sustained manner with Africa’s sound foreign policies. The goal that is considered to be worth working for is an Africa that is both cosmopolitan as well as African. Nelson Mandela’s pursuit of non-violence was due to faith in the power of Transforming Justice which has the formula of “rights plus power is equal to justice” McMahon (2004: 58) and is related to being beneficial to others. He believed that by eliminating apartheid and establishing democracy, human and civil rights for his countrymen would be easier to achieve. There is a call for the African Renaissance, coming out of “a long period of darkness and fear into one of light and a dream fulfilled” (Nathan, 2005: 363), in which the African people themselves through their sustained efforts have transformed their own lives from one of suffering, war, oppression and hunger to a new world of democracy, development, prosperity and peace. Nelson Mandela is significant as one of the greatest moral leaders. “His greatest achievement has been to create through majestic leadership a climate in which the new South Africa can collect itself for the journey that lies ahead” Adair (2002: 330). Discussion It is observed that the demands faced by leaders at all levels are substantial. A great deal of research has been conducted on leadership qualities, because with greater complexity in change and organisational management, there is increasing reliance on leadership. Great changes which are happening in the world today include globalisation, digitalisation, changes in demographic structure and populations due to migration, and declining social and natural resources. These changes are creating contradictory pressures and stress. Some of the opposing forces that are seen today are: “speed versus sustainability; exploration versus exploitation; global versus local ways of organising; and top-down versus bottom-up approaches to leadership” (Connor & Mackenzie-Smith, 2003: 59). Leadership and proactive behavior are important qualities for personal as well as for others’ progress. These characteristics are acquired by studying the example set by great world leaders. Applying Nelson Mandela’s Leadership Qualities to the Hospitality Industry: It is essential that employees and management in the hospitality industry should have leadership qualities, to ensure that the best possible services are offered to the industry’s guests, which impacts popularity and demand for the hotel or facility that the employees represent. The Importance of Leadership in Providing Service Quality: There have been great changes in the hospitality industry in the recent past. With increasing demand for hospitality services from consumers, the industry rises to the requirements by evolving and adapting itself. A major aspect of the hospitality industry are its employees. For the industry to function smoothly, the quiet efficiency of the large number of men and women who work behind the scenes as well as at the frontline, is crucial. Each type of work in the hospitality industry: whether in the tourism sector or as hotel owners, kitchen and restaurant staff, housekeepers, cleaners, reception staff, technicians and experts, entails the functioning at high levels of efficiency. Personal and professional leadership play a part in each employee’s working life, for achieving optimal positive outcomes. All employees are essential cogs in the huge machinery of the industry, which runs in a well-oiled manner for one fundamental reason: and that is, to provide customer satisfaction which would lead to customer loyalty. In the highly competitive world of the hospitality industry, best possible customer service is essential. A research study was conducted by Wilkins et al (2007: 840) on the importance of service quality for business performance in the luxury and first class hotel sectors. The paper clarifies the “dimensions and structure of service quality” in the hotel industry. The results of the study show that customers see service quality in its entire form and also the different service attributes that consumers find important. The total service quality, the physical product and the quality of food and beverage are found to be the most important components for customer satisfaction. Transformational Leadership: In the literature review given earlier, the leadership qualities of Nelson Mandela were studied in detail, relating to the events in his unique life story and to his immense achievements in spite of the several setbacks that he had faced. His transformational leadership style, and his servant leadership have helped him in leading the fight against apartheid, in victory over the ruling white minority government, and in establishing multiparty democracy in South Africa. Though many other leaders had played a part in South Africa’s freedom struggle, Nelson Mandela’s role in it was exceedingly important, because of his profoundly effective abilities at negotiation, persuasion, interpersonal and mutual understanding created with the adversary. As an executive in the hospitality industry, leadership qualities are very crucial for building support and cooperation from colleagues and subordinates. By emulating Nelson Mandela’s leadership style, one can adapt his attributes for achieving positive outcomes in the hospitality industry. This also demonstrates how Mandela’s approach is universal, and can be easily adapted in any discipline or field very effectively. Mandela’s style of leadership which was participative, democratic and focused on followers, is a crucial approach, since efforts towards the good of the others is the goal. In hotel management, when the executive undertakes to help his subordinates in the work that she/ he delegates to them, their participatory approach becomes clear, and they will gain the respect and obedience of their subordinates. Nelson Mandela’s leadership was also directive as when he encouraged fellow black South Africans to forget the past, or advised them to ensure that their adversaries did not get a rough deal, and were given equal citizenship rights in South Africa after a democratic government was established. The powerful and positive motivation behind such directives shines through and it is not difficult for others to understand the humanistic reasons for the approach. Similar directives or orders towards improving hospitality services for clientele in the hotel indusry, would be gladly followed by subordinates and colleagues, once their respect has been won as a responsible executive who has everybody’s best interests at heart. Mandela’s transfomational style of leadership also meant that he could effectively communicate inspiring emotional messages, to motivate and urge his followers. This attribute in a leader is crucial to the success of his/ her organisation. This ability should be cultivated, to get others’ agreement and cooperation when inspiring them to work to their maximum potential and in innovative ways, so that their organisation would be unique in its loyal employees who give the best services. Personal pride and inner motivation should be kindled by the leader executive. It is also possible that the manager’s tranformational leadership has the capability of opening up interactional channels between the various levels of employees, and enhanced communication systems result in better work performance. A research study was conducted by Gill and Mathur (2007: 328) on improving employee dedication and pro-social behavior by transformational leadership. The effects on job stress and further impact on burnout were studied. Interviews were conducted on hospitality industry employees. The results suggest that “employee dedication and pro-social behaviour are positively related to the improvement in the level of perceived transformational leadership implementation”. The practical implications of this research study are that useful insights for hotel managers can help in achieving improved performance from employees. When employees understand that their managers are using high-level transformational leadership their dedication and pro-social behavior in the work environment improves noticeably. Empowerment and motivation: Business profits based on successful innings is directly dependent on the image of the hotel, tourism package, travel destination or resort created in the minds of the customers. For this purpose, individual hotels and other hospitality organisations are willing to spend heavily for advertising their product. The keen sense of competition ensures that only the well qualified are selected to fill employment vacancies at various levels. Mandela’s leadership style of motivation can be adapted for employees to raise their performance levels to the highest. Employees are generally expected to work autonomously, anticipating their customer’s requirements and providing a gladdening experience to which they would want to return again repeatedly. To work autonomously, employees have to feel empowered to carry out their duties with a sense of purpose, keeping in mind the common good of the facility. It is the duty of the management and senior staff to empower all the employees and bring their leadership qualities to the fore-front. The extent of empowerment is directly related to the level of leadership, the ability to motivate others as well capacity for self-motivation. Empowerment can be done by instilling in the employees a sense of commitment towards the organisation they work for. This is best done by offering the best incentives in terms of promotions or financial benefits as recognition of the efforts made by the employees. Supporting employees to fulfill their aspirations for job satisfaction or better renumeration helps the leader to gain their cooperation and willing compliance for high level of job performance. Mandela’s ability to empathise with the other individual and come to a compromise with them in conflict situations, can be applied for obtaining employee loyalty. Conforming with All Individuals and Multicultural Management: The leadership style of Mandela had many aspects to it, each of which he employed appropriately in the required circumstances. He has also been known as a mixture of opposing traits, since he had the potential to accommodate and adjust himself to the most extreme circumstances, could feel comfortable in the company of all people irrespective of their social status, age or any other factor. This ability of a leader to make others feel comfortable in their presence, is also worth emulating. Especially in the hospitality industry, if the hotel executives can make the guests feel at home, feel welcome and happy to be there, irrespective of their background, nationality, or cultural differences, it would be a very positive attribute. Such employees would always be a great asset to the industry. Many of Mandela’s traits were in contrast with each other, because of his complex cognitive abilities. For example, though he had his country men’s best interests at heart, he was equally concerned about the happiness and security of the minority white population. His practical outlook was the basis for his congenial skills in reaching mutual understanding with his adversaries. This type of practical understanding of the necessity for maintaining best relationships with all concerned, whether fellow employees or the guests/ customers, would ensure that interpersonal bonds were created and maintained. These relationships, irrespective of culture or background, have the potential for emotional responses to arise, and long lasting loyalties are forged with the clientele as well as with colleagues. Research was conducted by Testa (2007: 468) on hospitality leaders and multicultural management on “how employees evaluate leaders with varying national cultures and identify any subsequent employee responses”. The research study used open-ended questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The results of the research on difference in culture between leader and employee and the subsequent effects on work and attitudes of employees showed that the issue of different cultures was indeed a complex one and resulted in difference in employee reactions to their leaders, and also affected the hospitality service to the guests. Hence, it is observed that building of interpersonal relationships between executive leaders and subordinates on mutual grounds such as working towards a common goal, should be emphasized. Building rapport between the various levels of staff, irrespective of cultural or ethnic background is crucial to the smooth functioning of the industry. Cross-cultural management of employees is possible for hospitality industry managers and executives, by following Nelson Mandela’s flexibility and feeling of universal kinship with all persons. Research was conducted on the roles of moderators on new employees’ socialization, by studying leader-member exchange and team-member exchange. The results showed that the samples responding to the survey did not differ demographically. Questionnaire method of survey was used. “When the correlation matrix for the 17 job attributes of unmet expectations was assessed with Barlett’s test of sphericity, the results indicated that the overall correlation matrix was significant at .0001” Lam (2003: 55). The measure of sampling adequacy (MSA) for individual variables ranged from .844 to .950. The indexes can be interpreted as meritorious because there is a high degree of intercorrelation among the job attributes (Appendix 1). Flexibility and Crisis Management: Nelson Mandela’s flexibility as a leader is one of his strong points. His deep conviction about non-violent methods of freedom fighting were put aside when they did not work, and he led the campaign of sabotage and destruction after many of his followers were massacred by police firing at Sharpeville in 1991. This ability to be flexible in one’s ideas, and take action according to the occassion is very important for hotel management executives. Flexible methods of dealing with unexpected occurrences or accidents, the ability to take immediate and strong action against wrong-doing even at the cost of losing popularity among subordinates, leading by example in matters such as punctuality and impeccable service at any time of the day, go a long way in ensuring the customers’ satisfaction in the personalised services offered to them. A research study conducted by Israeli (2007: 807) examined crisis management practices in the Israeli restaurant industry. A questionnaire was used for evaluating the different methods of crisis management used, and their usefulness. The results were consistent for all the participants, showing that managers use the most important methods for crisis management. Governmental support and action in the case of external crises was considered to be essential, and confronting decline in business was done by cost-cutting and improved competitiveness. The use of negotiation in crisis management is exemplified by Mandela’s dealings with the government in the struggle against apartheid, which can be emulated in the hospitality industry also. It is clear that high-level leadership qualities are required to deal with crisis situations. There are forces driving the adoption of global strategies in the hotel industry and the strategic response of international hotel chains to those pressures. Whitla et al (2007: 778) state that in Yip’s model, “global strategy” is constructed as the extent of world-wide co-ordination and integration in respect of five strategic ‘levers’ which are: the scope of overseas participation, uniformity of products and services, location of activities, marketing policy, and competitive moves. “The antecedents to the adoption of global strategy are described in terms of four sets of ‘drivers’, involving: markets; costs; governments, and competition” (Appendix 2). Thus, in response to a call for world-wide cooperation, the hotel industry adapts itself with the help of strategies that are universally used. Ethics in Leadership: The ethics behind Mandela’s leadership style denoted him as a moral leader, and he was also known as a servant leader. Though completely involved in politics, and not basing his work on religion, Mandela’s deep faith shone through in all his actions. As a servant leader, he followed the Christian philosophy of leading by serving. No task was too big or small for him, and his equanimity and grace in the most trying of circumstances made him stand head and shoulders above others. For example, his imprisonment for twenty-seven years saw him stoically continue his anti-apartheid work to whatever extent was possible for him, he accepted his fate calmly and held no grudge against anyone even after being released, though he was immensely saddened by the long and lonely years that he had lived in prison. His spirit of reconciliation and attitude to move on, and not be hindered by looking back is certainly worth adapting. Conclusion This paper has highlighted the leadership qualities of the world leader and statesman Nelson Mandela. His outstanding attributes have been described by several authors, who are unanimous in acknowledging him as one of the foremost leaders of our time. His cause was the freedom struggle to win democracy in his homeland South Africa, from the ruling white minority government. Over a period of several decades, he remained steadfast to his cause, and was imprisoned for a period of twenty seven years. His appointment as the first president of South Africa in 1994 marked the beginning of the new era of democracy for the country. Nelson Mandela’s charismatic leadership is made up of unique components. Some of them are: strong authority and his transformational leadership style, which along with negotiation and empathy for the adversary’s point of view helped him to turn enemies into cooperative partners. His ability to motivate his followers with directives and emotional messages is also crucial. All of Mandela’s leadership qualities have been found to be applicable to the hospitality industry. His ability for reconciliation, strengthening interpersonal relations, negotiation and genuine warmth towards all, without any bias are great qualities which make him tower as a truly great leader, worth emulating. These leadership qualities are important for all individuals in their personal and professional lives, especially so in the hospitality industry which is completely a people-based environment. To be successful as a manager in the industry needs the ability to build consensus among staff and lead especially from the back, by motivating and enthusing the employees to work innovatively and autonomously and provide customer satisfaction to the highest degree. Thus, lessons from Nelson Mandela’s leadership style are found to be useful in developing one’s own leadership style and behaviors. References Adair, J. 2002. Inspiring leadership: learning from great leaders. London: Thorogood. Archbishop Tutu, D. 2007. Foreword. In X.M. Mangcu, ed. The meaning of Mandela: a literary and intellectual celebration. Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press: vii-ix Bass, B.M. & Riggio, R.E. 2005. Transformational leadership. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Burns, J.M. 2004. Transforming leadership: a new pursuit of happiness. New York: Grove Press. Buthelezi, J.C. 2002. Rolihlahla Dalibhunga Nelson Mandela: an ecological study. Canada: Trafford Publishing. Connor, R. & Mackenzie-Smith, P. 2003. The leadership jigsaw: finding the missing piece. Business Strategy Review, 14(1): 59-66. Gill, A.S. & Mathur, N. 2007. Improving employee dedication and pro-social behavior. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(4): 328-334. Holland, G. 2002. Nelson Mandela. The United States of America: Gareth Stevens Inc. Israeli, A.A. 2007. Crisis-management practices in the restaurant industry. Hospitality Management, 26: 807-823. Lam, T. 2003. Leader-member exchange and team-member exchange: the roles of moderators in new employees’ socialization. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 27(1): 48-68. Lieberfeld, D. 2003. Nelson Mandela: partisan and peacemaker. Negotiation Journal, July 2003: 229-251. Mandela, N. 1994. Long walk to freedom: autobiography of Nelson Mandela. The United States of America: Back Bay Publishers. McMahon, T.F. 2004. Ethical leadership through transforming justice. Maryland: University Press of America. Mangcu, X.M. ed. 2007. The meaning of Mandela: a literary and intellectual celebration. Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press: vii-ix Nathan, L. 2005. Consistency and inconsistency in South African foreign policy. International Affairs, 81(2): 361-372. Presbey, G.M. 2006. Evaluating the legacy of nonviolence in South Africa. Peace and Change, 31(2): 141-175. Szayna, T.S. 2000. Identifying potential ethnic conflict: application of a process model. California: The Rand Corporation. Testa, M.R. 2007. A deeper look at national culture and leadership in the hospitality industry. Hospitality Management, 26: 468-484. Whitla, P., Walters, P.G.P. & Davies, H. 2007. Global strategies in the international hotel industry. Hospitality Management, 26: 777-792. Wilkins, H., Merrilees, B. & Herington, C. 2007. Towards an understanding of total service quality in hotels. Hospitality Management, 26: 840-853. Appendix 1 A Model of Leader-Member Exchange and Team-Member Exchange and Socialization Outcomes (Lam, 2003: 52) Appendix 2 Yip’s Framework of Global Strategy Whitla et al (2007: 779) Read More