The Types of the Sciences - Essay Example

Science is practically useful in inspiring technological progress to improve the material condition of the nation and the people in general (Gieryn, 1983). Science is empirical in nature. Its road to truth is experimentation with observable facts. In science, to check the theory deductions have to be compared with the facts of observation. Science is skeptical because it respects no authority other than the facts of nature. Science is the objective knowledge free from emotions, bias and prejudice. Science is theoretical and the scientists acquire knowledge through systematic experimentation with nature. Pseudoscience is any body of knowledge, methodology, belief, or practice that claims to be scientific or is made to appear scientific, but does not adhere to the basic requirements of the scientific method (Wikipedia). The word ‘pseudo’ implies that the science is fake or false just because there are problems with the testability criterion (Thompson, 1980). Pseudoscience is supposed to lack supporting evidence and plausibility (Goldstein, 2000). According to Muralidharan (n.d.) one is an experimented science and the other is an experienced science. Simanek (2005) emphasizes that the practitioners of all that is termed as ‘pseudoscience’ do not recognize the validity of this term. The boundaries of science and pseudoscience continue to be debated. With the help of a therapy in alternative medicine, namely Reiki, this paper will demonstrate that it is not possible to distinguish between science and pseudoscience. According to Lakatos (1970), the demarcation between science and pseudoscience is through inductivism. According to this theory only those propositions can be accepted into the body of science that describe hard facts or are inductive generalizations from them. An inductivist accepts a proposition only if it is proven true, otherwise he rejects it. If a proposition remains unproven, it is called pseudoscientific. He firmly states that science is based on hard factual propositions and inductive generalizations. The experiments of physics and chemistry are associated with this concept. The draw back here is that inductivism does not explain why certain facts rather than others were selected in the first place. How do the scientists get the inspiration to select a hypothesis? When a drop of water falls on our hand, the realization of hot or cold is an experience. Science merely explains the phenomenon of hot or cold but the heat and cold have existed even before the scientist made an attempt to study it. Certain disciplines which were earlier supposed to have features of pseudoscience, like lack of reproducibility, or the inability to create falsifiable experiments, are now accepted as science. Reiki is one such therapy which is now recognized as a branch of alternative medicine. It is now increasingly being accepted that experimental verifications is not a decisive scientific method. Rothbart confirms that experimental success is no definition of science because many clear cases of genuine science have been experimentally falsified (cited by Wikipedia). Goldstein further states that the scientific method cannot be easily defined and contains no rigid rules. Scientific consensus is reached when the results are repeatedly replicated by others. Science requires debate and testing under properly controlled conditions. Even if this was taken to be the basis of science, Reiki and several other therapies fulfill the criteria. Brainwaves, the body pulses, and their role in stimulating healing can all be measured today (IHR, 2005). In 1988, more than 870 patients were asked to experience the pre-and post- surgery Reiki treatment. The result was less use of patient medication, shorter stay in hospitals and greater patient satisfaction. Patients with heart transplants and open heart surgery did not experience the usual post surgery depression, when they were given Reiki healing. The effects of Reiki on human hemoglobin and hematocrit levels were measured (Wetzel, 1989 cited by IHR). T-tests revealed that there was statistically significant change between the pre- and post-course hemoglobin and hematocrit levels of the participants. At the same time, no change was observed for the untreated control group within an identical period. It could thus be proved that energy could be transferred between individuals for healing and balancing the energy. Blood levels increased for some while it decreased for others, which is again consistent with the concept the Reiki has a balancing effect. . Philosophers of science agree that hypotheses and theories do not occur in isolation. Assumptions and hypotheses form a part of the general framework and then the hypothesis is applied and tested. A negative test result does not render the hypothesis as pseudoscientific because such occurrences take place even in general science (Thompson, 1980). Scientists employ many techniques to save a hypothesis. Practitioners of the so-called pseudoscience do not need to make an effort save any hypothesis because it is an experience which everyone can undergo. A theory or discipline that purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a period of time, if it faces many unsolved problems. It can also be termed pseudoscientific if the community of practitioners make little attempt to develop the theory towards solution to the problems, and if they are selective in their confirmations and disconfirmations. Again, progressiveness is a matter of success of the theory in adding to its set of facts explained and problems solved (Thompson). Reiki is being continuously discussed and evaluated at all levels. A study at the Cross Cancer Institute, Canada, explored the usefulness of Reiki as an adjuvant to opioid therapy in the management of pain. Reiki treatment was provided by second degree healers. Pain was measured using a visual analogue scale (VAS) and a Likert scale before and immediately after the treatment. Both instruments registered a significant reduction in pain following the treatment (Leeuwen, 2005). Medical College of Ohio (MCO, 2003) has received two grants totaling more than $47,000 to study the effects of therapeutic touch on osteoarthritis of the knee and to evaluate the effect of Reiki on persons with chronic pain. Any science can be termed as pseudoscience if it does not meet three requirements – theory, community and historical context (Thompson). The theory element comprises of explanations and predictions while the community element is concerned about the agreement of the practitioners on the concept, principles and the methodology. There should be evidence that practitioners explain anomalies and compare success with each other. The historical element requires that there should be record of theory over time in explaining new facts. Reiki has existed for thousands of years and there is evidence that it has been practiced. It is constantly been reported at all levels. Bogomolova (2006) contends that Reiki is already used in several hospitals for cancer patients. Reiki is reported to ease the side effects of chemotherapy and radiation, improve immune function, ease anxiety, reduce pain, and promote relaxation. Popper (1957), while trying to distinguish between science and pseudoscience, says it is very difficult because science often errs and pseudoscience may happen to stumble on the truth. The normal response would be that science differs from pseudoscience by its empirical method, which is generally inductive as it proceeds from observation to experiment. Popper however disagrees saying that despite observation and experiment, the result may not be up to scientific standards. According to scientists the inductive method is the only satisfactory criterion of demarcation between science and pseudoscience. Induction allows generalization of a number of observations into a general rule, according to Max Born (cited by Popper). There is no logical argument; it merely relies on faith. Popper refutes this theory saying that no rule can ever guarantee that a generalization inferred from true observations, however often repeated, is true. Even Born himself does not believe in the Newtonian physics inspite of its success. Popper stresses that the success of science is not based upon any rules of induction but upon luck, ingenuity and the deductive rules of critical argument. According to him induction is a myth and does not follow any scientific procedure. Science often jumps to conclusion after one single observation. Repeated observations and experiments demonstrate refutations of the theory. The food that was considered beneficial for the treatment of a particular disease several years ago is now refuted by scientists claiming that it causes damage. The opinions and arguments by different authors lead to the conclusion that at the outset the term ‘pseudoscience’ itself is not right. The sciences grouped under this term have all been experienced and observed more than once. Scientists keep changing theories and principles but the experience of the pseudoscience remains the same. Just because Reiki is the transfer of cosmic energy into the system and because people cannot ‘see’ the transfer does not mean it does not exist. It has been successfully applied and the results obtained all over the world. Hence, Popper’s theory that science jumps to conclusion after a single observation is valid. Based on the discussions on the thoughts of different authors, it can be firmly stated that it is not possible to distinguish between science and pseudoscience. In fact, there is no criteria that can demarcate to satisfy such a distinction. References: Bogomolova A (2006), Medical Research on Reiki Therapy, 15 Aug 2007 Gieryn, T. F., (1983), Boundary-Work and the Demarcation of Science from Non- Science: Strains and Interests in Professional Ideologies of Scientists, American Sociological Review, Vol. 48, No. 6. (Dec., 1983), pp. 781-795. Goldstein, B. H., (2000), Unconventional Dentistry: Part I. Introduction, J Can Dent Assoc 2000; 66:323-6 IRH (2005), Scientific Studies on Reiki, 15 Aug 2007 Leeuwen H V (2005), Reiki Research, 15 Aug 2007 Lakatos, I., (1970), History of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions, PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1970, pp. 91-136 MCO (2003), Lovell Foundation Funds MCO Research, 15 Aug 2007 Muralidharan K (n.d.), Reiki- Revival of Divine Healing System, 15 Aug 2007 Popper, K., (1957), SCIENCE: CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS, Philosophy of Science: a Personal Report in British Philosophy in Mid-Century, ed. C. A. Mace, 1957, 14 Aug 2007 Simanek, D. E., (2005), What is science? What is Pseudoscience? 15 Aug 2007 Thompson, R. P., (1980), Is Sociobiology a Pseudoscience? PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1980, Volume One: Contributed Papers. (1980), pp. 363-370. Wikipedia, Pseudoscience, 15 Aug 2007 Read More