Islamic Discrimination amongst Non-Muslim Australian Citizens - Essay Example

Can Islamic discrimination amongst non-Muslim Australian citizens be attributed to media portrayal? A Research Proposal Presented for Approval by: (Academic Organization) Researcher: (Kris ???) Table of Contents I. Research Title II. Research Summary III. Background IV. Literature Review V. Significance of Research VI. Aims and Objectives VII. Research Design and Methodology VIII. Proposed Research Timetable IX. Ethical Issues X. References XI. Appendices I. Research Title Can Islamic discrimination amongst non-Muslim Australian citizens attributed to media portrayal? II. Research Summary As is usually the scenario, terrorist organisations attempt to justify their murderous acts in the name of faith, religion or any other specific objective. The whole of society would likely support the idea that the destruction of innocent civilians cannot, however, be justified by any objective. Thus, terrorist-related tragedies maintain a substantially negative impact on society. In today’s scenario when the world has become a global village, real-time information about any terrorist-related event or tragedy at one location will get spread worldwide with rapidity due to the vast network of media associations. The American September 11, 2001 World Trade Centre tragedy was one of severe calamity which claimed many lives. The 9/11 event was followed by another act of terrorism on July 7 in London: A bombing in 2005 which claimed 56 lives. These two activities dominated much of media attention worldwide creating a linkage of a particular religious group in these two activities. The method by which media reporting of these terrorist activities is presented often portrays Islamic-based or Muslim groups in an unfavourable light, creating questions as to the credibility of reporting the events as being somewhat biased. Media reporting often fails to report terrorist activities with objectivity, leaving Australian citizens with a one-sided viewpoint regarding the Islamic faith as a whole, likely creating a level of unsubstantiated discrimination against this entire religious group. This proposed study is designed to examine the reporting methods and media portrayal of Islamic terrorist organizations which might be competently attributed to Australian social discrimination against Muslim individuals. It is proposed that this link can be established between media and Islamic discrimination through analysis of media content within the period followed by the September 11 and July 7 terrorist tragedies. III. Background The recent increase in global terrorist activities and the method by which terrorists have conducted many of their hostile activities have attracted attentions of individuals from media and society as a whole. Repetitive press linkage of one particular religious group has given rise to the interest behind this research. The aforementioned American and British tragedies have boosted the over-generalization of the Muslim community as a whole by the media worldwide. Even more specific, Australian media has taken an active interest in the portrayal of those in the Islamic faith as being generically linked to terrorist activities. As such, the Muslim community in Australia is likely being adversely affected by terrorist activities and poor representation of the entire Muslim community by the media during this period; and continues to this day. The central hypothesis of this proposed study involves the 9/11 and London terrorist calamities being followed by an explosion of various media coverage which has likely contributed in internalising Islamophobia amongst non-Muslim Australian citizens. IV. Literature Review A series of recent terrorist activities have been largely associated with religious militant organisations. On the name of faith, god, religion and religious responsibilities, young minds are being trained to become involved in faith-based terrorist activities. Derrida suggests that deconstructive faith has to be distinguished from a particular order of messianic faith (a faith within a determinable horizon) (1998, 8). The September 11 attack and London 7/7 Bombings are current examples of Derrida’s notion of destructive faith. This news has been presented by media groups around the world as being the product of Islam, Islamic faith, terrorism and Al-Qaeda. Linking these ideas together creates an ideology in the mass media that automatically presumes that these individual variables are synonymous to each other; this ideology created by the media then becomes problematic. The role of ideology then, requires consideration; defining ‘ideology’ can be difficult in itself. Chomsky (2002) raises various issues on the way media represents various issues of war, trade union issues and terrorism. The issues ranged from the presentation of these events by media and control of powerful groups over these mediums to control thought process of mass. Various other issues are raised in Said (1996, 44) on his work “Covering Islam”. These were related to the partial knowledge of the people in West about Islam and questioned the interpretation based on this partial knowledge. Crelinsten (1989, 167-198), Slone (2000, 450-520), Weimann and Winn (1994, 51-89) explained the emotional effect of the media stories in their works. According to the authors, media stories are often highly sensational and selective, which is apparent from the various news reports appearing within a variety of media sources. The stories highlighting pain, killings and inhuman activities sell more than other constructive stories. The appetite of society for the bad stories has been largely commercialized by several media groups. (Altheide 1997, 647-668; Shoemaker 1996, 32-47) The news media have certainly learned to take advantages of the publics’ appetite for bad news (Altheide 1997, 647-668; Shoemaker 1996, 32-47). This assists the masses to perceive the world as more dangerous than it really is. The media is often viewed as profit maximizers willing to profit from selling any kind of news despite the probable effect it will have on the society. It has even been suggested that the media sector has been accused for being irresponsible, as they are blindly profiting from terrorism. Weimann and Winn (1994, 51-89) claimed that terrorists seek media attention. In the recent past, the terrorist activities trend has been supporting this view. In 1972, when Arab terrorists attacked the Olympic Games in Munich, the media stories were unfavourable to the terrorist organization. This fact infuriated the group and their spokespersons became frustrated that the media attention they get focused too heavily on violence rather than on politics (Irvin 1992, 62-85). Many scholars are sceptical as to whether media attention benefits terrorist groups. Irvin (1992, 62-85) offered another viewpoint regarding media coverage, citing the effects of media coverage for terrorist activities as having three different audiences: The constituency of the terrorists, the population they attack, and the international community. The expectations of the terrorist groups differ from audience to audience. Terrorists may expect favourable media coverage only if the population they are fighting for maintain their own media outlet. A radical Marxist perspective would suggest that it is those who hold positions of power in society who have established the dominant ideology; these distort our view of the world. To clarify the Marxist concept of ideology, Louis Althusser describes ideology as ‘a distorted definition of reality’ because, “…individuals are always-ready interpolated by ideology as subjects, which necessarily leads to the last proposition: individuals are always-already subjects.” (1971). Further, Althusser (1971) argues on the acceptance of the dominant ideology that it is easy to become a segment of society which accepts the dominant ideology, rather than being different from the mass. The maintenance of hegemony is not simply about political and social control, but the extent to which the media give “preferential access” to the definitions of those in authority (McQuail 2002, 97). Stuart Hall argues that the access given by the media to those in authority to express their view ensures that the media reiterate the dominant ideology (1996, 427). V. Significance of Research This research will help in developing an understanding of the role played by media in constructing social reality amongst society. This proposed study will be conducted in respect to “Islamophobia” and how this has contributed to increasing discrimination displayed in the more general Australian non-Muslim population. This research will help in establishing relationship between media and social construction of reality, particularly with discriminatory opinions against the followers of Islamic faith. The intention of this proposed research study is to offer non-Muslim Australian citizens solid research based on media literature as well as public opinion to aid in removing broad Islamic discrimination based on unfounded social perceptions of the group. VI. Aims and Objectives The aim of this study is to establish a relationship between media and social construction of reality and its creation of unsubstantiated bias against Islamic citizens. Hypothesis: Media contributes in development of social construction of reality. Reporting of terrorist attacks after September 11 and London Bombing has unjustly represented the general Muslim community in Australia. Biased media coverage can be attributed to the creation of Islamic discrimination in non-Muslim citizens in Australia. This study will contribute to understand the complexity of Australian Islamophobia and role of media towards a specific community. There is currently limited research information available that has been conducted maintaining a similar hypothesis, offering this proposed study an opportunity to contribute to easing Australian social tensions against Muslim individuals. The further significance of the study is in understanding the role of media and social construction of reality in order to assist in the understanding of media impact within society. VII. Research Design and Methodology This study is based on both primary and secondary research: Content analysis along with a series of interviews targeted at non-Muslim Australian citizens. This research will identify this aspect of social perception through a qualitative approach, as this method of analysis offers insight into how one event shapes another; which cannot be measured through statistical analyses (quantitative approach). Secondary Research method: A supporting method of this research will consist of a content analysis of the reporting content of various leading newspapers historical articles printed immediately after the 9/11 attack and 7/7 London bombing. This study aims at finding Press’ mobilisation of the terror threat and its impact on the dominant discourse suggested by the Press regarding the relationship between Islam and terrorism. This is done by encompassing a wide spectrum of ideologies for the analysis of the language form and function in various newspapers. The first seven days of newspaper coverage following September 11, 2001 World Trade Centre attacks and July 7 London bombings is covered in this analysis. These articles will provide an indication of the unfolding press coverage of the attacks and the implications of this subject and can then be related to theoretical themes of the Literature Review. Further, contemporary research articles will be analyzed in order to determine whether the presence of media bias continues to be presented within todays existing literature. Tienair et al (2006) suggest that journalists construct their (agendas) in particular ways, through both rhetorical strategies and written techniques, supporting the methodology behind the content analysis. This content analysis will locate trends in communication content as well as identify whether any persuasive attempts to coerce the reading audience are noted in the research articles. The data extrapolated from the newspaper articles will be documented in generic software such as MS Excel which will later be graphed in a pie chart format indicating the extent (percentage) to which perceived media bias is located within the research articles. The research will consider how these themes are presented and how they arguably contribute to the maintenance of hegemonic ideology. This research analysis is based on newspaper content analysis. The limitation to this study lies in the scope of available research being isolated to merely newspaper analysis due to time and resource constraints. Primary Research Method: This will be an interview conducted involving only non-Muslim individuals being represented in this study, with a total sample size of 50-75 total respondents. The participants in the interview will be aimed at primarily university students. These potential participants will be approached informally, with an indication that their participation in an academic research study highlighting terrorism is requested. It is projected that 10 of the respondents should also represent various age groups and genders to offer a broader viewpoint in this research study. These additional participants will consist of academic instructors, with whom this researcher will establish a scheduled appointment for the interview; as well as adult acquaintances to which this researcher is familiar. The interviews will be prepared in consideration of the “stigmata” already given to Muslims in general and constructed to avoid the perception of pre-established bias within the interview, however it will be designed in order to facilitate a definite opinion and view of Muslims. It will determine the impact within non-Muslim citizens regarding the media portrayal of Muslims. The methodology behind a qualitative approach lies in the hypothesis that multi-directional relationships shape one another, as is the hypothesis of media impact shaping social reality. The interview questions will be correlated to determine whether specific trends exist in the responses and these trends, should they exist, can be further quantified using appropriate graphs or data charts. A limitation to this primary research study consists with the geographical constraints in targeting a higher sample population. The majority of this primary research will be conducted within the vicinity of the researcher and will not represent a larger non-Muslim audience. VIII. Proposed Research Timetable Task 1: Data collection - Newspapers of specific period Formalizing interview structure to be utilized for distribution to non-Muslim Australian citizens. Task 2: Data collection with the assistance of structured interviews from primary research Organizing newspapers Interviewing non-Muslim members of Australian local society. Task 3: Organizing all data for analyses Task 4: Data Analyses Task 5: Write up and presentation of data Time required for various stages of study Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month 5 Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 Task 5 IX. Ethical Issues This is a sensitive study aimed to study a specific religious group and its representation in media, thus the ethical concerns are substantially high as the nature of the interview questions surrounds the Islamic faith. However, with the idea in mind that Muslim citizens are likely frustrated by the social perception of their desired faith, this study maintains the potential to serve a positive purpose in pursuit of raising social awareness regarding discrimination against Muslim citizens. The anonymity of respondents will be ensured and all the respondents will be informed about the objectives of the study and their roles in fulfilling an academic-related research project. Confidentiality will be ensured and actual identities will not be published without permission of the participants. X. References Allan, Stuart (1999) News Culture, Buckinghamshire: Open University Press. Altheide, D.L. (1997) The News Media, The Problem Frame, and the Production of Fear, Sociological Quarterly 38 (4): 647-668. Althusser, Louis (1971) Essays on Ideology, London: Verso. Chomsky, N (2002) Media Control, The spectacular Achievements of Propaganda, Post 9/11 Edition, The Role of Media in Contemporary Politics, New York: A Seven Stories Press Publication Crelinsten, R.D (1989) Images of Terrorism in the Media, Terrorism 12 (3): 167-198. Derrida, J (1998) Faith and Knowledge Stanford: Stanford University Press. Hall, S (1996) ‘Racist Ideologies and the Media’ in Paul & Thornham, Sue (Eds). Media Studies – A Reader, Edinburgh University Press. Hall, S (1997) Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, London: Sage. Irvin, C.L (1992) Terrorists Perspectives: Interviews, In D.L. Paletz and A.P. Schmid (Eds). Terrorism and the Media, London: Sage. pp. 62-85. McQuail, D (2000) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, London: Sage. Said, E (1996) Covering Islam, How Media and the Experts Determine how we see the rest of the world, revised edition. Vintage Books. New York: Random House Inc. Said E. W (1981) Covering Islam, London: Vintage. Shoemaker, P.J. 1996. Hardwired for News: Using Biological and Cultural Evolution to Explain the Surveillance Function, Journal of Communication 46 (3): 32-47. Slone, M (2000) Responses to Media Coverage of Terrorism, Journal of Conflict Resolution 44 (4): 450-520. Tienair, Janne, Vaara, Eero & Kuronen, Marja-Lissa. (2006). Managing the Media. European Business Forum. London: Iss. 25: 47. Weimann, G and Winn, C (1994) The Theatre of Terror: Mass Media and International Terrorism. New York: Longman. XI. Appendices Proposed Interview Questions for Primary Research Collection Interview: 1. Who, in your opinion, was responsible for the 9/11 attacks and London bombings? This question is designed to illustrate the social perception about these terrorist acts. Australia is geographically isolated from the rest of Westernized society and these perceptions will likely be generated by mass media coverage. 2. What is your overall opinion of these terrorist activities? This question will promote whether a specific trend of social thought exists regarding terrorism. 3. Are there any particular groups or individuals that you feel pose a particular threat in terms of terrorism? Who? The nature of this question is obvious. Before moving further into the interview, this will determine who non-Muslim citizens believe are threatening. 4. Do you believe that Australia is safe from experiencing terrorist activities? Why? This question is being proposed prior to introducing the Muslim faith to witness whether a trend exists about why Australian citizens feel unsafe. 5. What do you believe motivates terrorist activities? Again, before introducing Muslims in the interview, this will determine whether any specific idea, group, or objective is commonly mentioned which can be then correlated to the secondary research to see if these perceptions coincide. 6. What is your impression of the Muslim faith? For example, what do they believe in? This question will determine whether people in Australia are well-educated about Muslims or whether their beliefs are based solely on media representation. 7. Have you ever considered researching or joining a Muslim church or Muslim activity? Why? This is being proposed to witness the overall impression of the Muslim faith by introducing the concept to their social consciousness and how they perceive a desire to gain knowledge of Islamic activities. 8. In what ways would you say the media portrays the Islamic faith? Again, this will compare actual media representation to see if perceptions correlate precisely to the language of media. 9. Does the media offer a fair evaluation of Muslims? Why? This question will be measured with the level or lack of bias found in secondary research to determine whether social perceptions of Muslims also contains bias. Read More