The National Curriculum, and Bilingualism - A Review and Summary of Mitchell, Hooper and Brumfit - Essay Example

The National Curriculum, and Bilingualism - A Review and Summary of Mitchell, Hooper and Brumfit (1994) Current paper provides summary and review of the study by Mitchell, Rosamond and other writers titled as “Knowledge about language” from Southampton University in England. It reflects educational issues stated in the case concerning the extent of secondary students’ knowledge about the nature of language, native and foreign, alongside development of practical language skills. Basically, the paper covers five important areas of pupils’ knowledge about language (KAL): language as a system, language learning/development, language variation by use and by user and language change. These areas were meant to see the relationship between pupils’ developing understanding of language and language learning. In the end it is concluded that given the fragmented and episodic nature of mush AL work, its full potential contribution to pupils’ development as language users is not being realized. Suggestions for improvement are made. The project carried out in the case that is being reviewed has been initially taken into consideration for research as the strong curriculum debates about “Knowledge about language” (KAL) have taken place. This term implies that pupils’ learning language in formal setting started to acquire some explicit understandings and knowledge of the nature of language as well as the development of practical language skills were debated to be needed. Therefore, researches of the project that is being reviewed have found it reasonable to review the range of rationales which have been advanced in recent years in support of this position and to provide review of two important findings about teaching of English and of foreign languages. Overall these projects revealed substantial levels of KAL-related activity in English and foreign languages, and some suggestions of its positive contribution to learning, especially for control and planning in writing. The case study that is being reviewed is well organized and consists of several parts that cohesively complete a new investigation about knowledge of language. After Abstract, and executive summary, authors provide acknowledgement to those who were helpful to complete the research. Primary thanks are made to several teachers of English and Modern Language as well as to their 9-year classes, who gave access to visit lessons and thus to willingly share the thought and achievements with researches of the study. Also thanks are made to ESRC who funded the project and for the general encouragement to think in a cross-curricular framework which came from participation in the “Quality of Teaching and Leaning” Initiative. After the acknowledgment part is finished, introduction about the actual study starts investigation. Motivation and goals of the project is a framework of the introduction part. It is stated that “every competent language user, no matter what their level of formal education, has developed a certain level of awareness of the nature of language and how it functions as a system, apparently as a result of their practical experience of langue use. This has been illustrated... however, formal education adds a substantial increment to this implicit metalinguistic awareness, initially as an inevitable by-product of literacy training (which, for example, promotes awareness of the double articulation by which “letters” in different combinations go to make up “words”).” Further, rational about the project is stated. Authors speak about the rise-and-rise of knowledge about language, about differences in language education over years and centuries. It is stated that “the 20th century has seen the growth more experiential theories of language learning and development for both L1 and second/foreign languages, and their increasing influence even in formal education”. Teachers of English in England are typically literature-oriented in training as well as teachers of foreign languages are influenced by he behavioral concerns of the “communicative language teaching” movement (Brumfit and Johnson, 1979). To present rational of the project on KAl, authors first define the term which has been greatly influenced in varying degrees by the expanded vision of the nature of language offered by contemporary linguistics. Such concepts as “communicative competence” (and especially its attendant notion of appropriacy), discussions of KAL among English teachers have usually been influenced by sociolinguistic perspectives on language variation, while the LINC project reflected a broadly Hallidayan perspective on the nature of language. The project that was originally funded for a 26-month period listed five following aims: 1. “To document the understands of secondary English and foreign language teacher regarding the nature of language, their beliefs about the role of explicit knowledge about language in language education, and their reactions to National Curriculum policy proposals in this area”. 2. “To document and compare the handling of explicit knowledge about language in English and foreign language classrooms, both as a pre-planned topic and in response to pupil initiatives and discussion of ongoing work.” 3. “To explore the models of language held by 13-14 year old pupils and their origins, in the classroom and outside it”. 4. “To document how such pupils make use of explicit KAL in the course of English/FLs classroom activities and assignments.” 5. “To explore relationships between knowledge and understanding of language and the development pupils’ English/FLS skills.” The exact reflection of these objectives was important to note in order to proceed with the development of the study and see how those goals were implemented in further speaking methodology and resulted in discussion of research. Methods Methods used in the study included both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis. Data were gathered by means of classroom observation, teacher and pupil interviews, and pupil discussion activities and problem-solving tasks. Preliminary phase Research was conducted in three secondary schools in Hampshire. Two schools were situated in urban areas, and one an inner-city school. On this phase it was important to make contacts with staff of the school, to observe language classes in action, and to trial ideas for KAL elicitation techniques. The next stage of research methodology aimed to review two first goals of the project through classroom observation Year 9 classes in the three school were observed and audio-recorded through extended parallel sequences of English and FLs lessons. Observation phase of the methodology also included observing teachers and teaching classes (there were 2 English classes, 3 French, 1 German, 1 Spanish). During the lessons, a fieldworker took contextualizing notes, and managed the audio-recording of whole class and small group work. Documentation that could be helpful to carry out further research was also gathered. As a result of observation stage, systematic scheme was developed to code retrospectively all KAL-related episodes identified within a selection of the recorded lessons. Scheme included such points as language as system, language acquisition, language variation according to use, language variation according to user, language change through time. Another part of methodology and data gathering was interviewing seven teachers to follow objective one and document the decision-making underlie the teaching strategies of education. Post-observation interviews probed teachers’ impressions of the progress made by the classes observed, and the major influences on that progress. The “second main fieldwork phase” (Summer 1992)related to pupil tasks devised to explore more fully their knowledge and understanding of language. Tasks followed all five objectives of KAL listed previously. These tasks were audio-recorded and carried out by pupils working in small groups under the general supervision of the fieldworker. Finally, secondary analysis was carried out on a corpus of interview transcripts with English and History teachers ad their Year 7 pupils. The English and History transcripts were systematically analyzed in order to see KAL-related classroom activities, evidence of the state of teachers’ and pupils’ knowledge about language, and their perceptions of its role in language development. The discussion part of the study reflects analysis on bilingualism research and provides the evidence of research. Van Rooyen (1990:105) proposes the following with regard to the teaching of learners in a second or third language: "Teachers should be trained to be aware of the special needs of the content subjects the children have to follow in later years, so that they can prepare the children to cope with the language demands which will be made on them. Teachers should also be trained to cope with the changes in the classroom culture which a more interactive teaching style will necessitate." Learners experience a high sense of self which causes conflict between their perception of their ability to speak the language of instruction and their parents and friends negative reaction to this. A sense of achievement was identified in the interviews and native sketches due to the fact that the learners could communicate in their language of instruction: "I feel proud when I speak English." The language of instruction (English) is perceived as a status symbol. According to Nieto (2000:193) this is caused by the fact that the language of instruction is usually linked to the learners future economic and social welfare. According to Nieto (2000:193) this is also caused by the fact that: "... students who speak a language other then English are reviewed as handicapped" and they are urged, through both subtle and direct means to abandon their native language." Learners perceive their language of instruction and the language they speak at home as two different entities When speaking their language of instruction to communicate with their friends outside the school, they are ridiculed and labeled: "At home the children say you are a coconut ... you are going to change and be white people." Conflict between what the learners perceive as positive and their peers negative reactions to them speaking their language arise. Learners who speak their language of instruction rather then their mother tongue are being excluded from mother tongue speakers. Being rejected by their peers may lead to a series of other problems. They have been found to be at risk of a wide range of school-related problems including absenteeism, school dropout, low academic achievement poor grades and grade retention (Juvonen & Wentzel, 1996:69). A case study conducted by Nieto (2000:219) on the effect of labeling Mexican American children for not being taught in their mother tongue leads to the conclusion that parents and teachers should make learners feel proud of their differences in language and culture. The classroom situation is not a natural situation for the learner: "... during break I must speak out. In class Im not allowed to speak out." Traditionally schools expect learners to adapt to the culture of the school (Purkey, 2000:51). This is how the author describes this situation: "Because some schools are unable to adjust themselves to individual differences among students, children face daily depreciation. The result is that many children give up early in school, feeling that with no attempt, there can be little or no humiliation." This fear of being ridiculed by their fellow students causes them to withdraw from classroom discussions: "When I say wrong words the children in the class will laugh at me." They also experience a sense of sadness: "Because all the children are looking at me, they make me feel sad." Learners who are being taught in a second or third language require unique skills to be taught effectively. These unique skills for teaching learners with language barriers are often overlooked by schools and cause the learners to feel left out or overlooked. A lack of insight on the different ways of interaction by the different cultural groups in the classroom situation may be one of the reasons why learners feel left out in classroom discussions. Johnson (1995:61) describes the influence of culture on learning as follows: "... culturally learned ways of communication that differ from those expected at school can create discontinuity between the home and the school, and ultimately inhibit the students abilities to fully participate in and learn from classroom events." Guidelines for teachers Guidelines were formulated for teachers to assist learners who are being taught in as second or third language. Guidelines for teachers with regard to effective classroom communication and management. Teachers need to reflect on classroom activities to ensure that they rare aware of what is taking place during lessons. Teachers who reflect on their teaching, either through journals or more formal reflective experiences as part of their teacher education program, often become more aware of not only how they teach, but why they teach and the way they do (Johnson, 1995:31). Gravelle (1996:26) describes the following guidelines for teachers who are teaching second language learners: * Learners must be given the opportunity to apply their language skills in real life situations. * Second language learners should be given ample opportunities to listen to their second language and to be given the chance to take part in discussions. * Errors in speech should not be corrected immediately. Overemphasized learners language errors during conversations may lead to the learners withdrawing from conversation. * Teachers must make use of a wide range of ways to make the language understandable for the learners. They may make use of pictures, objects and practical activities to ensure that the learners understand their explanations. * Social interaction and peer pressure are also important factors to be taken into account when teaching second language learners. Children, especially at a young age learn a lot more from their peers than what they learn from their teachers and other adults. Teachers must utilize this to their advantage and motivate learners to assist each other. * Assessment should be in relation to the curriculum and not the learners language proficiency. Teachers should thus accommodate second language learners in their assessment.. * Teachers should try and build on the learners previously gained knowledge. The learners previous achievements and cultural backgrounds should be taken into account. An inviting classroom atmosphere also enhances learning. Harmer (1993:85) emphasizes that in a classroom with a positive learning atmosphere the learners diversity are respected and they are valued as individuals. Lessons should be challenging and must be characterised by language, reading, listening and writing skills. Teachers should integrate the rich cultural backgrounds of learners into their lessons. This should be a meaningful experience for all learners. The importance of planning and preparation to meet the needs of learners that are languaged challenged could not be overemphasized. It is important for learners to know that they will not be penalised for language errors. They should be encouraged to actively partake in the lessons. Teachers must make use of different kinds of assessment when assessing these learners. Guidelines for teachers to support learners who are experiencing conflict with regard to their perception of success because of their ability to communicate in their language of teaching and learning and their parents and peers reactions towards them. Bilingualism is an advantage and should be nurtured (McLaughlin, 1978:I). Learners should be encouraged to speak their language of teaching and learning. There must he continuity between the home and the school. Parents should be included in the total learning experience of their learners. This could be achieved if the following strategies are included in the schools policy: * Communication between school and home should be as open and democratic as possible. * Learners should be encouraged to use their mother tongue and to retain their culture and identity. * Parents should be active participants in all school activities by including them in the decision-making process with regard to the curriculum and extra curricular activities. Teachers should highlight tolerance towards different cultures and languages in the classroom. The acquiring of positive social skills is important. Learners must experience a strong sense of comfort and safety from both physical an emotional abuse and criticism. Campbell (1996:145) emphasizes that the teacher should have order and discipline in the classroom to ensure that the learners do not intimidate, tease or criticize each other because of their language differences. Learners progress is enhanced if they believe that they could count on the teacher to protect and support them. An atmosphere of mutual trust and support can be achieved if there are democratic rules that are practised democratically. Language diversity should be recognized in schools. Purkey (2000:78) defines the "five powerful Ps" that should be taken into consideration for effective planning in schools with regard to curricular and extra-curricular activities: * People: Teacher should ask themselves the following questions when planning namely: How do we perceive our learners and ourselves? Conclusion Teaching and learning in a second or third language is a common occurrence in South African schools. The learners experiences with regard to this phenomenon are not widely explored. During numerous conversations with colleagues the researcher became aware that teachers are not aware of learners experience with regard to this phenomenon. A lack of insight lead to teachers feeling frustrated and incompetent. At first all the respondents claimed that they do not experience difficulties with learning in a second or third language. Native sketches were used where the same learners were requested to write down their experiences of the phenomenon. It became clear in these sketches that the learners do experience difficulties with regard to teaching and learning in a second or third language. Phenomenological interviews were held with the learners and a number of recurring themes were identified. Guidelines where formulated for the teachers to assist these learners. It is evident that the teachers do play a very important role in the inclusion of second and third language speakers in classroom activities. The teacher should encourage interaction between different language users during classroom activities as well as outside the school environment. Detailed planning should be done to ensure that all learners are included during the learning process. The concerns with regard to teaching and learning in a second language are not only school bound. Parents should be involved in the process of alleviating the learners difficulties that they are experiencing. The learners experiences and cultural background should form an integral part of the whole learning process. There are a lot of positive trends towards the enhancement of multicultural teaching. This should be strengthened and developed to ensure that all learners are developed equally. Bibliography: 1. Byram, M & Brumfit, C (2000): The Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning. London: Routledge. 2. Campbell, DE (1996): Choosing Democracy. A practical guide to multicultural education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 3. Combrink, JC (1973): Moedertaalonderrig in die laerskool. Johannesburg: Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel. 4. 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