Impact of Social Heterogeneity and Population Size on Social Relations - Essay Example

Impact of Social Heterogeneity and Population Size and Density on Social Relations Introduction Urbanisation is one of the most significant and glaring facts of modern life that has influenced the social relations to a great extent. From a sociological standpoint, a city is a large and dense settlement of heterogeneous individuals. According to Louis Wirth (1938, p.1), the recency and rapidity of urbanisation in the United States has led to its acute urban problems. Large numbers consistent with individual variability render human relations superficial and transitory. Density leads to the contradicting coincidence of close physical contact and distant social relations along with accentuated friction and such other negative phenomena. Heterogeneity leads to gradual breaking down of rigid customs and social structures causing increased instability and insecurity. Urbanisation The city being the hub of economic, political and cultural life, human beings from different areas are attracted to it. These human beings come from diverse backgrounds and cultures. According to Wirth, "69.2 per cent of the total population of those countries that do distinguish between urban and rural areas is urban" (Pearson, cited in Wirth 1938, p.2). Moreover, the growth of the cities is far greater in areas where industrialisation is more advanced than those where it is not as progressive. This transition from a rural area to an urban city has impacted every phase of social life. A city is a product of evolution rather than spontaneous creation, and hence it is only natural that "the influences which it exerts on the modes of life should not be able to wipe out completely the previously dominant modes of human association" (Wirth 1938, p.3). Moreover, a great section of the inhabitants of a city, who have moved in from different and most probably rural areas, bring with them influences of their own cultural backgrounds and previous modes of lives. Such influences leave their imprint on their personalities also. From a sociological perspective, urbanism refers to the characteristic mode of life of the aggregation of human beings living in the city. The dominance of the city is the result of its concentration of industrial and commercial, financial and administrative, transportation and communication, cultural and recreational, healthcare and hospital facilities along with its professional and educational, and religious and welfare institutions. Urbanisation, thus, is the mode of life distinctive to the city as well as the changes that it causes to modes of lives of the people who are under the influences of the predominant features of the city (Wirth 1938, p.5). The social aspects of a city depend on the essential characteristics of the city. For example, an industrial city is significantly different in social respects from a commercial, mining, fishing, resort, university or capital city. Similarly, the social characteristics of a single-industry city differs significantly from a multi-industry city as do that of a residential suburb from an industrial suburb and an old city from a new city, etc. A city, for sociological purposes, may be therefore defined "as a relatively large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals" (Wirth 1938, p.8). Hence the social relationships between individuals in a city are influenced by the population size, density of settlement and the heterogeneity of its inhabitants. Large numbers are naturally consistent with a great range of variation among individuals in human interactions. Therefore the personal traits, the beliefs, the ideas, the cultural lives and occupations of individuals in an urban community are spread over a far wider range than those of individuals in a rural community. In such a setting, human bonds of kinship, neighbourliness and sentiments "arising out of living together for generations under a common folk tradition are likely to be absent, or at best, relatively weak" (Wirth 1938, p.11). In such a situation, formal control systems take the place of bonds of solidarity. There is less number of acquaintanceships and as human beings do not interact as full personalities due to their various backgrounds, there is segmentalisation of relationships. Relationships tend to be superficial and are more or less means towards personal ends. Density refers to concentration in limited space. When there is concentration of human societies in constant and limited spaces, naturally there is differentiation and specialisation. This in turn leads to a contrasting co-existence of close physical contacts with distant social relations. Human beings are exposed to the contrasts between splendour and squalor, affluence and poverty, intelligence and ignorance, and order and chaos (Wirth 1938, p.14). Density, land values, accessibility, healthfulness, prestige, aesthetic considerations, conveniences and absence of nuisances become the criterion for choice of places of settlement. This, further, causes delineations within the community. Besides competition for space, there is competition in all phases and aspects of life. Social interactions between individuals coming from diverse ethnic, cultural, social and economic backgrounds gradually break down barriers and lessen the rigidity of social structure. The increased mobility of an individual brings him/her in close proximity to stimulation from a large number of diverse individuals, resulting in the individual having differential status in different social groups. In such a setting, instability and insecurity tend to be accepted as a norm which account for the "sophistication and cosmopolitanism of the urbanite" (Wirth 1938, p.16). All aspects of life, including place of work and residence, nature of occupation, income level, income and interests, fluctuate, making it difficult to develop and hold lasting and meaningful relationships. Constant association with and competition among diverse groups of individuals also brings in an element of depersonalisation. In short, participation in social, political and economic life of the city would call for subordination of the individuality at least to some extent "to the demands of the larger community and in that measure immerse himself in mass movements" (Wirth 1938, p.18). The London context London, the most important city in the UK, has grown over the years to become a city of diverse population - one of the most diverse in the world, which encompasses "300 languages and at least 14 faiths" (Equality and diversity 2008). London is also a city of economic contrast, with great disparities between the rich and the poor. Social inequality as regards ethnicity, age, gender, faith, disability etc. has definite relations to economic inequality. "Virtually all Londoners are descended, distantly, from people who came to Britain from overseas" (Gordon & Travers 2006, p.3). London's ethnic minority population was about 1,850 in 1440, 3,000 in 1501 and between 5,000 and 10,000 in the 1570s. Thus, there have been a visible minority of non-white Londoners long before the advent of the recent immigration. The development of Britain's sea power and colonies brought in immigrants from China and Africa. Britain's status as a world superpower attracted to London rich and powerful people from all over the world, including America, France, Germany, and India. In London, "there were more Scots than in Aberdeen, more Irish than in Dublin and more Roman Catholics than in Rome" (Gordon & Travers 2006, p.3). Effects of immigration The European Union enlargement in 2004, have led to arrival of immigrants in great numbers to the UK. The extent of immigration that has grown beyond expectations has led to growing concerns over social cohesion. The dynamics of work and family life have changed a great deal over the last decade with families growing smaller, more people living alone, and work demanding more of people's time (Immigration and social cohesion 2008). This has affected their associations within and outside the work situation. Some of the new settlers in the UK feel that the family values are particularly under pressure here. Everyday realities are under severe strain due to the combined forces of individualisation, globalisation and post-industrialism. The resultant transformations shape the lives of the long-term settled residents and new immigrants, significantly influencing their social relations. Issues of social cohesion consequent to social transformations have been studied by a multitude of researchers in the last decade. The main issues relate to the essential aspects of family, education, work, housing, poverty, etc. Family dynamics The increasing pressures of consumerism have increased the pace of life with increasing demands of work having a serious impact on family life. The changed circumstances have brought about increased necessity for mothers to work, which has created new balances between work and family. Women have an increased economic status while they continue to be the primary caregivers of the family, which naturally has led to reduced social cohesion. This has put great limitations on relationships within the family and outside, leaving little scope for associations in the wider social circle. The altering dynamics within the family and the work situation are having a great influence on the relationships between people. Mothers find less time to involve in their children's school activities. When both men and women have to work, their responsibilities, including caring for children as well as ageing parents, are shared. Lack of time to meet all these responsibilities results in a "care deficit" (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.20). While remarriage disturbs the balance of care and responsibilities, inter-ethnic families alter the cultured contours of the immediate and extended families. Increased consumerism leads to increased need for income generation. Children are the one of major consumers in a family. While those who worked spent money on electronic gadgetry like play station for the children, which are harmful to their health as they took them away from the playground, families without work resorted to illegal methods of making money or debts to meet their needs for consumption (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.23). There is increasing concern about weakening parental authority, which is obviously leading to the waywardness of the young generation, which, unfortunately, has come to be accepted as a norm. For example, although alcoholism among youngsters is considered as a problem of concern, "it is not necessarily seen as a problem of social cohesion" (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.25). On a positive note, children from many ethnic families are able to enjoy the cultural diversity of their peers while developing themselves by imbibing the individualism of the British (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.32). Among second- and third-generation Pakistani families in London, patterns of generational integration has been noted in families that started out with few resources and little English, working long hours with limited time for their children. Each generation worked for and achieved better living standards, with the result that now grandparents can see their professional children giving their grandchildren the support that they could not provide their children at the time of their arrival in London. These Pakistani families could absorb individualism and merge it with extended family responsibility to the benefit of both the families and the community. This throws light on the extent of effort invested by the older generation of Pakistani families in maintaining cohesion within their families and their communities (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.32). Education and social cohesion In the field of education, it is found that the immigrants do not cause much tension (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.xi). Educational institutions have been venues for discussing and resolving issues that are of significance in the larger society. The arrival of immigrants has posed a challenge to the educational institutions as well as provided opportunity with increased enrolments. However, there have also been incidents of reactive aggression instigated by the settled population in various parts of the UK, which were found to have resulted due to the interference in the social hierarchies caused by the immigrant population mainly on issues relating to right and ability to obtain education and professional enhancement. For example, Malory School comprised of ethnic students as well as long-term settled pupils from Lewisham and other London boroughs. This resulted in a shortage of school space. The arrival of the new groups of students in the setting of long-term deprivation endured by some local majority ethnic communities along with the campaigning of the British National Party using inflammatory rhetoric and the poor performance of the school led to considerable inter-ethnic tension (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.45). There is also "evidence that the new City Academies reinforce, rather than challenge, existing inequalities" (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.xi). Social relations in the work situation Work has been found to be more a barrier to social cohesion than an agent of integration. The new immigrants are often segregated into the fields of agriculture and food processing, which fetched them low wages, with long working hours in the shift system and tied accommodation. The segregation extends even beyond the work situation. Employment agencies followed policies that reinforced this pattern of segregation. The study by Hickman, Crowley & Mai (n.d., p.xi) have found that new immigrants working in the nursing and care sectors were subjected to bullying and discrimination. Insecurity is a significant deterrent to social cohesion as this threatened establishment of new lives (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.xi). A remarkable observation, however, is the cooperation and support system that certain ethnic groups, like the women from Philippines, maintains among themselves. The earlier arrivals work hard and support the recent arrivals and others who needed support. Hickman, Crowley & Mai (n.d., p.86) has cited the example where "one woman worked as a catering manager in a big London hospital and it was clear that she continued to provide support for other new arrivals working alongside her in hospital kitchens." Living environment and poverty Housing does not have a significantly negative impact on social cohesion and relationships in localities that provided similar housing facilities as well as areas where new, improved facilities are provided to the long-term settled as well as the new immigrants. In localities with poor resources where there is overcrowding in substandard housing facilities and competition for space, naturally there is a lack of or decreased positive social relations. There is a pronounced lack of information and consensus on who is entitled to subsidised housing, which, again, is influenced by differential views on local hierarchies (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.xii). There is an absence of good social relations in localities characteristic of poverty and multiple inequalities, which is enhanced by lack of adequate resources. The "patterns of deprivation that link communities across the country provide inhospitable environments for social cohesion" (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.118). A positive trend noted in Kilburn, which is a multicultural locality, is that new arrivals have an easier access compared to their counterparts in Downham or Braunstone, although the hospitality extended is only to share deprivation. The deprived neighbourhoods of Downham and Braustone are devoid of communal facilities leading to young people hanging about the streets as they had no venues for social gatherings, provoking them to threaten pubic safety and such other anti-social behaviours (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.124). Drug abuse and drug dealing are predominant in areas of high unemployment. There is poor relation between the police and the community, with police drug raids incurring widespread antagonism from the community. The new arrivals are often held responsible for the limitations of deprivation, which naturally has a negative effect on social relations. Deprived communities that have limited experience of diversity are reluctant to welcome new arrivals, which leaves no hope for social harmony in such communities. In many cases, it is not the ethnic diversity that is causing ill will among the members of the community that leads to deteriorating social relations, but poverty and worklessness. Nevertheless, the cloud of the settlement of the new immigrants is not entirely devoid of a silver lining. Many majority and minority ethnic long-term settled welcomed the opportunity to meet people at public social events. There is found to be social cohesion among people who live in close proximity with togetherness, mixing with whom they chose, accepting differences and resolving issues (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.xiii). Conflicts and cohesions In deprived localities that are culturally homogeneous, conflicts and cohesions occur in relation to essential resources such as employment, education, recreational spaces, housing, etc. Negative dynamics are often found in localities where the long-term settled feared a cultural, economic or spatial decline. They probably have a close-knit social environment characterised by specific codes of behaviour emerging from its social and cultural heritage. Negative dynamics also occur when there is a scarcity of essential resources like employment, income generation, subsidised housing and decent educational facilities. A lack of information about the new arrivals amidst them, their background and their rights to shared resources also cause negative dynamics (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.152). Conversely, positive dynamics is noted in areas characterised by a "significant demographic, economic and cultural presence of diverse migrant populations" (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.153). In such areas, there is a common acceptance of a mixed social and cultural heritage, a plurality of living styles, and a coinciding socio-economic growth and stability. An example can be cited in the case of Kilburn. The shared experiences of discrimination and migration of African-Caribbean long-term residents and their Irish counterparts helped these two groups to coexist harmoniously. The shared history produced a shared feeling of belonging. In places like Kilburn, where there is presence of positive relations among social groups there are always venues for shared leisure, shopping and work time (Hickman, Crowley & Mai n.d., p.158). There is a direct correlation between the existence of opportunities and shared facilities of a place and the positive sense of belonging of its people. The future The volume of international immigration to Britain has increased in the last decade, with London receiving at least half of all migrants. Official projections suggest that this steady flow of immigration is likely to continue for the UK as a whole in the years ahead. "There is no reason to believe that London will not continue to receive a large share of such international migration, further adding to its cosmopolitan make-up" (Gordon & Travers 2006, p.6). References Equality and diversity, 2008, viewed 6 December 2008, http://www.lda.gov.uk/server/show/nav.00100g001003 Gordon, I. & Travers, T. 2006, Race, immigration and community relations in contemporary London, viewed 6 December 2008, http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/londonDevelopmentWorkshops/seminarOnRaceAndImmigration2006/RaceAndImmigration.doc Hickman, M., Crowley, H. & Mai, N. n.d., Immigration and social cohesion in the UK: The rhythms and realities of everyday life, viewed 6 December 2008, http://www.jrf.org.uk/bookshop/eBooks/2230-deprivation-cohesion-immigration.pdf Immigration and social cohesion in the UK, 2008, viewed 6 December 2008, http://www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialpolicy/2249.asp Wirth, L. 1938, 'Urbanism as a way of life', The American Journal of Sociology, vol. XLIV, no. 1, pp.1-24, viewed 6 December 2008, http://www.sociol.unimi.it/docenti/semi/documenti/File/Wirth%20-%20Urbanism.pdf Read More