Learning Theories for Teachers - Essay Example

It is recognized that teachers are expected to understand human development and learning processes to provide children and adults with efficient and effective education experiences. Learning Theories for Teaching, 6th ed., authored by renowned education researchers Morris Bigge and Samuel Shermis (1998), use their text to motivate teachers to develop their own theories of learning, and to evaluate such theories within the classroom, using an evidence-based approach. The text aims to encourage teachers to draw on learning theories to enhance their understanding of students, fostering an experimental attitude toward modifying delivery methods to optimize the learning experience. The authors make clear that the discipline of psychology is essential to further the understanding of learning and teaching processes. The science of psychology focuses its study area on the mind of the individual, often drawing on cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to measure and determine the mind's structures and functions. It is generally conceded that many human behaviors are learnt, and so psychologists have sought to identify a learning theory that explains learning processes. Education professionals, in turn, draw on this knowledge base to inform and provide ideal learning conditions for students. The text presents contemporary learning theories as emphasizing cognitive, socio-emotional and physical aspects of learning across the lifespan. This paper aims to present a review of the major learning theories used for teaching in the 21st century, especially noting the advantages of a cognitive-construcitonist approach. Firstly, the two major families of learning theory as conceived by Bigge and Shermis shall be presented. The specific theories of Skinner, Vygotsky, and Brunner shall be detailed. Secondly, a conclusion shall synthesize the main points of this paper, and provide support for education professionals to incorporate cognitive-interactionist theories into their classrooms. Describing the two Bigge and Shermis identify the two major learning theories of relevance to current education as being the behaviorist and the cognitivist schools of thought. The behaviorists focus on observable behavior and reduced the learning experience to a process of stimulus and response. This psychology approach to learning was adopted in the USA during the early 1900s, when science and technology were experiencing a time of accelerated growth. Hence, the concept of studying measurable, objective, human behaviors aligned with current values of a modernized society embracing standardized production methods. For the extreme behaviorist, all human behavior can be understood through the processes of conditioning, these being classical and operant in form. An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov's dog that 'learns' to salivate when it hears a bell. B. F. Skinner is famous for his development of the principles of operant conditioning, that is, that any behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow it. Skinner pointed out that a positive, negative or neutral consequence following a behavior influenced whether a particular behavior was repeated in the future, or if it was not. So, a person learns new behaviors, or is able to modify existing behaviors, as a function of environmental events that either reward or punish that behavior. In this way, Skinner's learning theory is a move away from the traditional behaviorist approach of stimulus and response, as he differentiated between types of responses. When a response was elicited by a known stimulus is considered to be associated with the known stimulus. Alternatively, responses that do not require a specific stimulus, which he termed operants, are independent of the stimulus. Skinner emphasized that it was the operant response that could be strengthened or weakened by use of personal, social or environmental rewards or punishments respectively. Skinner's principles advocated the idea that learning could be 'programmed,' which fit with the 1960s initial explorations into computer aided instruction. All that was required was for the student to practice, and to be provided with the ideal reinforcement (i.e., reward or punishment). Students were perceived to learn through processes of rote memorization and amount of practice. Education was greatly influenced by Skinner's principles of reinforcement in terms of being better able to regulate student behaviors and learning achievements. Information is reduced by the teacher into smaller components, and organized by the teacher into a format believed that the student would understand and could systematically build on. The information is presented in a logical and sequential way, as an 'instruction' which step-by-step aims to shape the behavior of students to a predetermined outcome. His principles also contributed to the concept behavioral objectives in lesson plans and standardization of exams. Hence, achievement outcomes were evaluated by way of the student providing the correct response (i.e., answer) to a prompt (i.e., exam paper question). However, Skinner's theory ignored the contributions of cognitions, with mental activity being considered a 'black box' devoid of meaning in that the activity could not be objectively observed and so reliably measured. Additionally, his behavioral approach did not seek understand why a student learnt in the way that they did, or acted out behaviors that they did. Skinner has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on the prediction and control of behavior. Especially given that from his viewpoint that control comes from external sources, and not from within the individual. Skinner's learning theory also highlights the behaviorist approach to the concept of reality, in that it is considered to be 'absolute' and so perceived in the same way by everyone, universally. Hence any differences that are exhibited between individuals are attributed to the type and amount of socio-environmental experiences a person has had. So that an expert has accumulated more experience as compared to a novice, although the novice, over time and with practice can become the expert themselves. Hence, the objective reality of the world can be known by anyone who has more experience within it. A student could be exposed to 'truth' by way of texts and lectures as determined by the experts, with knowledge being transferred to the novice through the processes of reading, listening and observing. In this way, Skinner's theory was paternalistic and so negative in the sense that one person could set themselves up as 'more knowing' than another. Alternatively, the cognitive approaches of challenged the concept of behavioral theory that it was the environment that determined a person's behavior. Cognitive learning theorists advocated that a person actively participates in the acquisition of new knowledge. Additionally, cognitivists highlighted that not all learning is observable, such as with mental representations within the mind of a person, and the processes of memory and thinking, which could be measured by way of interviews or surveys of people, as well as observations of external behaviors. The cognitive approach pointed to the learning development of children, wherein they do not just respond to their environment, but actively engage in making sense of the world and their experiences within it, and using their own guesswork as to how the world is structured and functions. Many behaviorists ignored initial cognitive theories because they focused on the subjective and mental processes of individuals, which, at the time, could not be observed or measured by way of controlled experiments. The early cognitive theorists such as Piaget and Vygotsky were the forerunners of constructivist theory. Constructivist learning theory maintains that a person actively engages in the learning process. As such, the individual constructs their understanding of the world, and the meanings that they ascribe to their experiences. Further, this construction of reality occurs by way of a person reflecting on their personal experiences within the world. It is assumed that the physical world can never be known directly, rather that each person constructs their own interpretation of it. Hence, there is no absolute reality, and each person's understanding of the world is relative to their biopsychosocial experiences. It is the social interactions, and environmental engagements, that on a daily basis contribute to how each person constructs their interpretation of reality. Importantly, constructed knowledge need not correspond to an external reality in order for the knowledge to be useful, because knowledge is useful when it 'fits' the needs of the learner. Thus, knowledge is subjective, according to the experiences and interpretations of each person. In this way, constructivist learning approaches emphasized that knowledge can be interpreted by alternative theories that can be tested as to their viability to represent or understand that knowledge. And viability, or usefulness, provides a continuum of truth relative to each person, rather than an absolute truth of universal application. Knowledge can be accumulated by way of building on unique experiences, as each new experience is evaluated and interpreted by a person through the filter of their previous experiences. As such, an individual's concept of reality is continually revised and modified as they acquire new knowledge. Ultimately, state the constructivists, knowledge is not directly transferable between people, such as from an expert to a novice, or through attending lectures or reading textbooks, as each person's unique experiences means that the information presented is interpreted differently. Hence, no two people will have exactly the same understanding, or interpretation of knowledge. With a constructivist approach, the learner is considered to have their own way of organizing knowledge, called schemas. Schemas are internal representations of knowledge that are interrelated as determined by the experiences of the learner. For example, galaxy schema may be related to another schema about the universe, planets and stars. When the student is presented with information about a galaxy, as in science class, they would use their galaxy schema to interpret the information. When the student is exposed to a new type of star system or planetary phenomenon they would try to understand it by way of their present galaxy schema. So, the student actively organizes their knowledge accumulated by experience and reflection into a complex network of interrelated schemas. It is by reflection of their experiences that the student challenges current beliefs, and may choose to modify those beliefs. Hence, books and lectures only provide the words to initiate the reconsideration of what a student thinks that they know. The cognitive-constructionist Vygotsky developed a learning theory principle which he termed the 'zone of proximal development.' Vygostsky argued that learning within a child activates a range of developmental processes that can only begin to function when the child is actively engaging in social interaction, or when cooperating with one's peers. The zone of proximal development being the difference between the child's capacities to problem solve on its own, and the child's capacity to solve the problem with the assistance from another person. Hence, the child's actual level of development incorporated what the child could perform and accomplish on their own, independent form outside help. And the zone of proximal development includes all the activities that can be performed and achieved with the assistance of another. Vygotsky pointed to the learning of language as an example of this scaffolding process, in which the relationship between the learner and their socio-environmental experiences are an essential component of learning. His theory has important implications for the education professional, such as the concept of the student as dependant on their social environment, at home, at school or college, and within the wider community, to provide an intellectual life into which they grow into. Hence, Vygotsky's social-interactioninst theory provides evidence for a less structured, step-by-step instructional approach to learning, and encourages teachers and students to adopt more natural, communicative and experiential approaches. Following on to Bruner's cognitive-interactionist approach to learning, the student is expected to actively interact with their learning environment, including their social environment. Bruner's approach here encourages the teacher and learner to be exploratory, experimental, and investigative as well as reflective in their acquirement of knowledge. The learner takes a reflective approach by first identifying the current problem, forms a hypothesis as to the optimal course of action to solve the problem, and then examines the implications of the chosen solution. The learner then tests their hypothesis, and draws conclusions as to whether the solution answers the problem as required. Bruner's approach endorses the student's efforts to go beyond the provided information, and to manipulate current knowledge to fit with new tasks and novel situations. The cognitive-interactionist approach encourages the student to develop a critical thinking style that draws on past experiences and stored knowledge to solve problems that may not have been encountered before, or to see old problems in a new and creative way. This approach has contribute to the way education professionals view the student as purposive beings who are able to make situational choices, and so empowers the student's autonomy and independence, as well as their ability to appreciate the viewpoints of others when seeking viable solutions to a problem. The use of constructivist theories for learning requires the education professional to provide the student with opportunities to actively construct and represent knowledge. In this manner, new knowledge becomes more concrete for the student. Interactive activities, such as hands-on practical application of new understandings, as well as incorporation of classroom discussions, encouragement of experiments and open-ended classroom objectives are some of the ways a teacher can incorporate constructivist learning theory into their classroom practice. In this way, the student is better able to actively engage with the knowledge, and is motivated to be curious and to explore their everyday familiar world, and to ground their understandings I their real day-to-day activities. The distinct advantage of this method of learning is that the student no longer just memorizes a set of facts and procedures, as meaning making is seen as understanding the 'whole picture', as well as the elements that comprise the picture. Hence, the student becomes a seeker of meaning. Further, the student comes to understand that as knowledge is constructed they have the ability to construct their own interpretations of the world. And open-ended learning materials encourage the learner to appreciate that there is more than one right answer to a question, and that each possible solution has both strengths and weaknesses, that are relative to the problem at hand. Overall, the two competing families of learning theory both continue to contribute to the learning experiences of students in the USA. Class activities and the resources used in teaching and learning are guided by the learning theories that teachers, administrators and legislators value. The behaviorist approach is drawn on to shape the behavior of the student in regards to school culture, and social norms. Many class activities continue to use an instructional approach in that the teacher and resources encourage a sequential process of learning. However, contemporary classrooms are also incorporating constructivist learning theories, in that activities and resources are also provided that encourage the student to build on previous knowledge, and to actively interact with new knowledge, and to reflect on their learning experiences. Current education discourse debates the emphasis on standardized testing as opposed to formative assessment procedures, such as the incorporation of open-ended questions that allow for multiple interpretations of the answer. Although, there is generally a consensus that learning should be a fund discovery process. It is evident that the constructivist approach is becoming more acceptable as a teaching theory, as more educators are encouraged to use their role as a facilitator of learning, rather than as an expert transferring knowledge into an empty vessel. However, as Bigge and Shermis point out, the biggest difference between the learning theory families is their perception of the learner. The behaviorist approach views the student as a passive and reactive organism that can be programmed with new knowledge by way of instruction from an expert. Whereas the constructivists take a learner-centered approach, advocating that the student interacts with their social and physical environment, and so actively engages in the learning process. Further, that the student requires a personal involvement in the acquisition of knowledge in order to learn the material optimally, and to subsequently apply that knowledge effectively and efficiently. The teacher who ascribes to a behaviorist learning theory takes on the role of a classroom 'manager' or 'director', carefully and systematically planning the learning processes of the student, and predetermine required outcome responses, namely, programming the student. Whereas, with the constructivist approach the teacher's role is more one of a 'collaborator' or 'motivator', who organizes learning situations and guides the student, rather than telling them information. The student is enabled to discover and generalize the inter-relationship of knowledge on their own, or between themselves as cooperative peers. There is also an encouragement from the teacher as facilitator for the student to draw on their own perceptions of a situation, and to make discoveries, to inquire and to be curious about the world in which they live. Hence, the constructivist approach to learning motivates the student to think, and to acquire meaningful knowledge that provides a deeper understanding of the material, and a deeper appreciation for the learning process itself. Ultimately, the cognitive constructionist learning theory approach provides an enhanced learning experience for the student that empowers and enables the learner to be aware of their potential to learn and to apply that learning in the real world. In conclusion, the text Learning Theories for Teachers encompasses a rich overview of the current dominant learning theories, and presents a critique of the consequences in the present day of adopting each theory within the teaching practice. It appears that a teacher would do best to incorporate facets from each theorist, although incorporating a constructivist approach as a key teaching value is contended here to be the best guiding learning theory for teaching practice. It is recommended that teachers in training, as well as teachers already in public and private practice test each of the learning theories within the classroom context, to facilitate the teacher's conceptualization and practical application of each theory. This will cultivate greater understanding of the theories themselves, as well as provide effective and efficient guidance for the teacher to adapt their teaching practices accordingly. Works Cited Bigger, Morris L. and Shermis, Samuel S. Learning Theories for Teachers, 6th ed. (1998) Allyn & Bacon. Read More