Psychology of Aging - Essay Example

1. Briefly discuss the theoretical process of selective optimization with compensation, proposed by Baltes (1987). Briefly discuss what each component entails (5 points). Provide one example of how older adult might apply selective optimization with compensation in their daily life (5 points). Answer: Baltes' (1987) theory of selective optimization with compensation is a theory of development. "Successful development is defined in this theoretical approach as the conjoint maximization of gains (desirable goals or outcome) and the minimization of losses (undesirable goals or outcome)." The SOC theory "involves an orchestration of selection, optimization, and compensation." When an individual decides on the path or goal he wants to achieve, this process is called selection. "During ontogeny, there are several additional sources for selection: individuals and societies sample from a population of possibilities or opportunities (.), limited individual capacity in time and resources, incompatibility of goals and outcomes, and age-related changes. The activities he will do to hit the target is optimization. If the individual can no longer keep his goal he resorts in goal-relevant means to maintain success - this is compensation. An aging journalist who used to go on field for a daily beat applies the theory of SOC in continuously writing news stories (selection), he ensures that he meets with the right sources to beat his deadline and be able to deliver a good output (optimization), but old age hinders him from doing field work everyday, hence, he opted to have a bi-weekly column in a broadsheet to maintain his keenness and visibility in the world of news (compensation). 2. Schaie (1994) asked whether there are differences in life-course patterns for various intellectual abilities with age (i.e., whether different abilities show different trajectories with age). Briefly discuss the answer to this question based on his results (6 points). Also note when reliable decrements in intellectual ability are detectible (2 points) and what role cohort effects might play (2 points). Answer: In his study, K. Warner Schaie (1994), have shown that "there is no uniform pattern of age-related changes across all intellectual abilities, and that studies of an overall index of intellectual ability () do not suffice to monitor age changes and age differences in intellectual functioning for either individuals or groups." The uniqueness of human mind, as well as, cohort, and gender are among the factors that makes the non-uniform pattern of age-related changes in the IQ. The age of 60 is the usual retirement age in most countries. Schaie's study shows "decrements in most psychometric abilities" mostly occur at the age of 60 onwards. Regardless of the individual pathology or genetic factors, "reliable average decrement can be found for all psychometric abilities by age 74. Cohort, generation, or peers also affect an individual's intellectual ability. Although "() patterns of socialization unique to a given sex role is specific historical period may be a major determinant of the pattern of change in abilities." 3. Imagine that you are asked by congress to develop a nation-wide training program that would enhance older adults' cognitive functioning. Based on the results from the Schaie and Willis (1986) study, where they trained reasoning and spatial ability in older adults, would you tell congress that a training program would work (5 points) Why or why not (5 points) Answer: I would be very glad to recommend to the Congress a training program to enhance adults' cognitive functioning. Based on Schaie and Willis (1986) study, "inductive reasoning training help improve everyday problem solving ability, particularly for older adults in their late 70s or early 80s. In the present time where a lot of concerns arise, that even a primary pupil encounter various perplexing matters (classroom and family politics), a cognitive training would be of help. It will boost the future, as well as the present generation's adult cognizance. 4. In 1990, Salthouse discussed the "lab-life discrepancy" regarding adult cognitive functioning. Briefly describe what this discrepancy refers to (5 points) Discuss how the results from Salthouse's (1984) study on the effects of age and skill in typing relate to the lab-life discrepancy (5 points). Answer: Salthouse's (1990) "lab-life discrepancy" somehow criticizes the "limited" results obtained in "typical psychometric test or laboratory tasks" like the "standardized paper-and-pencil tests" implored by Schaie and Willis in their study on cognitive ability. Salthouse believes "one possible means of evaluating the view that the activities of one's occupation and of daily living involve a different type of cognition than that measured in typical psychometric tests ()." However, very few were able to measure the real world competence due to the scarcity of resources. In his study on the effects of age and skill in typing, Salthouse's methodology involved typists of different age range in two separate sessions. The number of his respondents is somehow close to obtain what he calls "accurate representation of the entire population." On the first session, he used 34 female typists whose age ranged from 19 to 68 years old. On the second session, he used "40 typists between 20 to 72 years old." His subject consists of the adult population. 5. Bckman, Small, and Wahlin (2001) discussed several types of memory (e.g., semantic, episodic, etc.) in their review chapter on aging and memory. Choose two different types of memory. For each, briefly describe the type of memory it is and the age-related findings (5 points). Based on the Rahhal and colleagues (2001) paper on how instructional manipulations can influence memory performance, speculate whether the age findings you discussed may be skewed in any way (5 points). Episodic memory deals with information acquired in a certain place at a certain time, and involve traveling back in time for retrieval. The orientation towards the past sets it apart from other kinds of memory. Age-related deficits are seen in episodic memory functioning. It occurs earlier, deteriorates continuously, and the rate of decline is usually slow. Semantic memory is an internal lexicon, a network of nodes that represents words, concepts and associations. It is related to general knowledge of the world, meanings of words, concepts, and symbols. Information is stored in semantic memory without reference to context or time of acquisition. The organization and associative structure of the internal lexicon remain stable across the adult life span. Lexical access may be slower in old age, and older adults experience blockages (i.e., tip of the tongue). There is some evidence that age-related memory difficulties are due to retrieval failures, not structural changes. In very old age, some reductions in vocabulary size may occur. Age-related impairment is seen most consistently in episodic memory. Non-episodic memory-procedural memory, priming, semantic memory, and short-term-is not as vulnerable. On the other hand, Rahhal and colleagues' (2001) paper on instructional manipulations points out that people who undergo certain tests are told of what they are about to encounter, like a memory test. Individuals, regardless of age, have different reactions to pressure which in the process leads to mental-block or temporary loss of memory. 6. In his 2006 paper, Hartley discusses the changing role of the processing speed construct in the cognitive aging literature. Discuss how the questions that researchers ask about processing speed and aging have changed over time (10 points). Speculate about what the common cause factor might be, using research from the article and your own ideas (7 points). Finally, describe the practical implications of changes in processing-speed with age, by providing two specific, everyday examples (8 points). Hartley (2006) arguably discussed in his work that "the concept of speed of processing with its related measured and constructs has had more influence on research into the cognitive psychology of aging than any other over nearly 30 years from the first edition of the Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Birren & Schaie, 1977)" to his current paper. He acknowledged that the emphases of the various discussions have changed. During the earlier years, the range of discourse focused on finding an explanation on the "increased slowness in behavioral and cognitive processes with advancing adult age." But with the mediational approaches, "the emphasis shifted from explaining age-related differences in speed of processing to using those differences as an explanation for other phenomena." Hartley further points out, that "a mediational approach does not require that one take a position on whether differences in speed of processing are causal or simply correlates of changes of task performance." With various studies on speed processing and aging, scientists and even watchful ordinary individuals have already noted the "increase in the measured time to respond to any stimulus." These studies have almost covered every aspect that answers questions on the concept of speed processing in the cognitive aging, that even medical and nutrition experts have formulated foods and beverages that enhance the motor skills and memory of adults at their prime. Recently while walking at the downtown, I noticed an older adult at the pedestrian lane, beside her is a young adult who seemed oblivious of the person at her side trying to catch up as they cross the street. The motor skills of the older adult, who could be at her 80s, had slowed down. This older adult was not able to react immediately when a sliding door almost hit her. Indeed, processing-speed decreases with age. 7. Discuss how Baltes and Staudinger (1993) define wisdom and whether you agree with their definition. Provide examples of people you know who are wise (or not) to provide support for your argument for or against their definition of wisdom (10 points). Next, discuss the pros and cons with the methodology they used to assess wisdom (i.e., fictional life dilemmas; 10 points). Finally, discuss whether the results from their studies support or refute the saying that "wisdom comes with age" (5 points). Baltes and Staudinger (1993) dig on the study of wisdom-related knowledge and skills. They argued that aging is not primarily a stage of decline. They stated that "study of wisdom involves the search for a better world." Like an iron that diminishes its function as it acquires rust, our motor skills also decrease in speed as we age. These abilities can be measured easily. But our brain, the wisdom that it gained in time, is boundless. I have a grandmother, whom I love most. She is almost 70. She is healthy; however her motor skills are not to be trusted that much. But mind you, she has a remarkable disposition in life. When she was younger, my grandmother would shun topics like death and would rather the beauty and goodness of life. But now, talks on possibly leaving this world are an ordinary part of life to her. She also imparts on us, her grandchildren, the lessons she learned in life. Baltes and Staudinger's study "began with studying the role of chronological age, and () moved to application of what is typically known as "age by experience" paradigm. Most of their respondents are professionals who have accumulated age-related knowledge and skills. Since this study promotes the bright side of aging, that is acquiring more wisdom, naturally practicing professionals are more appropriate respondents. But on the downside, majority of the entire populace are ordinary individuals. These individuals also have a job of their own but, ordinarily, are not able to acquire the kind of knowledge that professionals have. In real life dilemmas presented in the study, (i.e., getting married at age 15), young adults tend to panic with idea but older adults are more open-minded. This is so, I think, because older adults have already experienced marriage while young adults have several considerations in mind like divorce. However, Baltes and Staudinger's study was able to show that wisdom indeed comes with age especially in practical thinking and decision-making. Read More