Biological and psychological aging - Research Paper Example

Biological and psychological aging Abstract Aging is an inevitable part of everyone’s life. Since the beginning of time scientists have always been intrigued by the subject of aging. Understanding the aging process will help humanity understand and develop efficient measures regarding treatment of age-related diseases such as heart disease and cancer. It is clear different species have different aging and lifespan characteristics. Experimental research on fruit flies and mice have helped scientist develop a better understanding of the aging process. Some factors have emerged to explain the aging process, and they include genes, environment, and behavioral traits. Factors Such as cross-linking of proteins, DNA, and other structural molecules have been associated with aging. Similarly, oxidative-damage, genome maintenance, and replicative senescence are contributors to aging. This paper offers a deeper understanding of the human aging process and presents the strides in the aging research process that have been made so far. Keywords: Aging, cross-linking/glycation, oxidative-damage, genome maintenance, senescence. Why does human aging occur? What is the present state of knowledge regarding biological and psychological aging? Humanity has always been intrigued by the question of why human beings age since the beginning of time. Every person may desire to live forever, but who looks forward to getting old? We hope we are vigorous right up until the very end. Still, day to day, many of us make unhealthy choices that could put our future at risk. Different cultures have their mythology to explain the aging process. Moreover, as we grow up, tales of eternal youth pique our curiosity. These are some of the musings that increase the curiosity of a budding scientist. Scientists so far have developed considerable knowledge regarding processes associated with biological and psychological aging. The modern technological advancements and collaboration between scientists have helped move research forward faster than ever before. Throughout the centuries, scientists have developed theories to describe aging. Some theories have emerged and faded away, however, the actual nature of the aging process is still uncertain. Aging is a fundamental part of everyone’s life. Though the aging facts; activities or processes taking place at a genetic, biochemical and physiological level have remained rich for exploration. This paper introduces some key areas of research into the biology and psychology of aging. Research on aging is dynamic, continuously evolving the process that depends on new discoveries, and thus this paper keeps an open eye on the future, as today’s research provides the strongest hints of things to come. Aging refers to all the changes that occur over the course of life. Scientists have conducted extensive research of model systems including, Drosophila, Caenorhabditis Elegans, yeast, and mice similarly, they have done research on cellular senescence and human progerias and identified some processes thought to contribute to the aging phenotype. The identified processes include “the effects of oxidative damage associated with cellular metabolism and genome instabilities such as mitochondrial mutations, telomere shortening, and chromosomal pathologies” (Danith, Lockhart, Lerner, & Schultz, 2000, p. 2486).Nevertheless, scientific research has focused on how factors such as genes, environments, and behavioral traits affect the aging process. So as to determine the effect of a factor on the lifespan of an organism scientist often alter the factor to see if it changes lifespan. For instance, if a certain gene is believed to influence lifespan process, scientists test a hypothesis by modifying certain aspects of the gene either lowering or increasing its activity. Then if the lifespan of the animal with the modified gene is shorter or longer, then the gene has a role in the lifespan. Therefore, the process of how human aging occurs can be summarized using few hypotheses drawn from various scientific studies to prove the various assertions. The first hypothesis is the cross-linking or glycation hypothesis of aging. The findings here reveal that with age, our proteins, DNA, and other structural molecules develop inappropriate attachments or cross-links to one another. The developed redundant links reduce the elasticity or mobility of proteins and other molecules. The enzymes called protease are responsible for the breaking down of damaged or unwanted proteins. Therefore, due to the cross-linkages developed the activity of the protease gets inhibited. Consequently, the unwanted and damaged proteins hoover around and can result in problems and complications. The second hypothesis is oxidative damage contributes to aging. Human or animals cells metabolism releases oxygen free radicals as a byproduct. These free radicals are toxic, and it is the role of cells antioxidants to sop up and neutralize these free radicals. However, some radicals escape the cleanup process and end up damaging the DNA, proteins, and mitochondrial. The damage known as oxidative damage and accumulates over time. Research conducted on fruit flies reveal that oxidative damage is a direct cause of aging. These free radicals cause the cross-linking of proteins, damage to the DNA, and the formulation of age pigments(Sevini et al., 2014, pp. 234-235). Oxidative damage is also a contributing factor in many age-related diseases such as diabetes, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease and heart diseases. Third hypotheses assert that genome maintenance contributes to aging. Human DNA experiences damage throughout the lifespan: it can be a result of mistakes in replication, oxidative damage, or outside environmental factors such as toxins or radiation. The egg or sperm cells usually hold genes that undergo mutations; that is, spontaneous changes in the structure of our genes. These mutations are passed on to future generations if they are not so potentially disruptive as to be fatal to our offspring. However, mutations that occur in the rest of the body cells affects only the individual and cannot be passed on to future generations. The majority of such body cells are often corrected and eliminated, but few get left behind. They then accumulate, consequently, resulting in the malfunctioning and death of the cells. Thus, this process is a crucial component of the aging process. For instance, the gene Daf-16, an evolutionarily conserved gene in nematodes, has been found to influence human aging(Donlon et al., 2012, p. 1). The genome theory also encompasses a part played by mitochondria, the cellular powerhouses as vital elements in aging. As people age, there is an accumulation of somatic mutations in the DNA of mitochondria. These somatic mutations are responsible for the declining functioning of the mitochondria. According to many scientist mitochondrial aging is a crucial element that results to aging in general(Alwin & Hofer, 2011, p. i9; Sevini et al., 2014). The fourth hypotheses assert that replicative senescence is a contributing factor to aging. Human cells have their limits when it comes to reproducing through dividing. According to scientists, the length of the cells’ telomeres determines the Hayflick Limit of dividing human cells (Goldsmith, 2014). Telomeres refer to the caps on the ends of chromosomes. During cell division, each has to double its chromosomes to ensure that a full complement of genetic material received by each daughter cell. However for every replication of a chromosome results to a decrease in the length of the telomeres. After approximately 40 to 60 doublings the length of the cell’s telomeres becomes critically short, hence the cells loses its ability to replicate chromosomes and thus stops dividing. Hence results in a phenomenon called “senescent” that is, cells that can no longer divide. However, it is crucial to note that though Telomeres and senescence are major contributing factors to aging they do not govern it (HayFlick, 2007, pp. 4-6). In conclusion, the research in aging is evolving, and scientists are incorporating the latest technology to aid in the research. The available modern technology has accelerated the research towards understanding the aging process. Nowadays aging is no longer a myth but a care combination of biological, social and psychological processes. Biology of Aging deals with the investigation of the processes that limit the lifespans of humanity and living organisms. Whereas psychology of aging refers to adaptive capacities to the environment while social age concerned with the roles and social habits of individuals. Therefore, scientists concur that genes, the environment, and behavioral traits influence the aging process. References Alwin, D., & Hofer, S. (2011, July). Health and Cognition in Age Research. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci., 66B(Suppl 1), i9-i16. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr051 Danith, H., Lockhart, D., Lerner, R.,& Schultz, P. (2000, March 31). Mitotic Misregulation and Human Aging. Science, 287, pp. 2486-2492. Donlon, T., Curb, J., He., Q., Grove, J., Masaki, K., Rodriguez, B., .. . Willcox, B. (2012). FOXO3 Gene Variants and Human Aging: Coding Variants May Not Be Key Players.J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, 1-8. doi:10.1093/gerona/gls067 Goldsmith, T. C. (2014). An Introduction to Biological Aging Theory (2nd ed.). Crownsville MD: Azinet Press. HayFlick, L. (2007). Biological Aging Is No Longer an Unsolved Problem.ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 1100, 1-13. doi:10.1196/annals.1395.001 Sevini, F., Giuliani, C., Vianello, D., Giampieri, E., Santoro, A., Biondi, F., . . . Capri, M. (2014). mtDNAmutations in human aging and longevity: Controversies and new perspectives opened by high-throughput technologies. Experimental Gerontology, 56, 234-244. Read More