Economic Development in Vietnam and Cambodia - Essay Example

In Southeast Asia, economic development is different between and within individual countries, particularly between rural and urban areas, between ethnic communities and between genders. Lubeck (1998) contends that different permutations of gender, social class and ethnicity play a part in this unevenness of economic development. With this in mind, this paper will discuss the changes economic development has brought to the position of women in two Southeast Asian countries, namely, Vietnam and Cambodia. "Vietnam is one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia, recording an average annual growth in gross domestic-product (GDP) of about 7.5% over the last decade." (ADB, 2007) Accounting for over 51% of the population and labor force, Vietnamese women have been "asserting their role and position in the national development" (VietNamNet, 2007) by participating in all economic, social, cultural and political activities in the country. Recent news broadcasts herald the advancement of women in Vietnam and on the surface things look very positive: in State agencies, women hold 20% of managerial positions and they account for almost 26% in the National Assembly; the country has bred a group of self motivated female industrialists; their intensified role in society is also replicated in their involvement in science and technology, culture and sports; the number of female technical doctors and professors has increased in recent years, and female volleyball players and football players have bought fame to the nation with their excellent triumphs. (VietNamNet, 2007) While it mat be true that Vietnam leads the Asia and the Pacific region in key aspects of gender equality and within the Asia-Pacific region, is second only to New Zealand, in terms of female representation in the legislature, (VietNamNet, 2007) this equality is not as clear cut as it may seem. A report by the Asian Development Bank in 2007 says that with one of the highest rates of economic participation of women in the world, Vietnam is one of the more advanced countries in respect to gender equality. They tell us that there is little difference between genders in school enrollment rates, and that literacy is high for everyone, and the gender gap is decreasing. "Equality between men and women is enshrined in the Constitution of Vietnam," (Ban De In, 2006) and according to the 1996 Constitution and related laws, women and men have equal rights with respect to economic opportunities, marriage and family matters, political input, community management, and ownership of property including land. The 2000 Law on Marriage and Family specifies that certificates for the use of common land by a household must list the names of both the husband and wife, thus signifying shared ownership. However, the prior 1993 Land Law, does not mention dual ownership, and in most cases, these certificates are registered in the name of the husband or male head of the household. This in turn, makes it more difficult for women to obtain credit for business opportunities. Although women, by law have equal rights in terms of property, they are often hindered by social factors, which intersect and conflict with legislation and enforcement of these equal rights is usually left to the judgment of local officials, who are usually male and vie in favor of the male member of the household. (Fahey et al, 2002) In 2002, the Vietnamese government approved the National Strategy for the Advancement of Women to 2010. "The strategy aimed to improve the material and spiritual lives of women, and create good conditions to effectively implement fundamental rights and promote the role, of women in political, economic, cultural and social fields." (Vietnam Embassy USA, 2006) Although to date, many of the targets set by the strategy for women's advancement such as, providing jobs, abolishing illiteracy, reducing the mortality rate related to pregnancy and birth, and increasing the rate of female representatives in the people's councils at all levels, have been achieved (ADB, 2007), the country still has a long way to go before women receive complete equal rights - in reality - not just on paper. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, states that 70% of households in Vietnam earn their livelihood from agricultural production and 53% of the farming population is female and 73% of these women are employed in the agricultural sector. They also note that the predominant crop in Vietnam is rice and that traditionally, men were given the first stages of rice cultivation to undertake and the women were given the later stages. However, this traditional task distribution is transforming and women are involved more and more in all stages of rice production. (FAO, 2001) In recent years, the shift to a market economy in Vietnam has resulted in a swing away from the community to the household as the "basic economic production unit", (FAO, 2001) but while rural households by and large, have profited from economic reforms, farm technology and technical knowledge, as well as money are not available to women to the same extent as they are for men. A major part of Vietnam's rapid growth is the increase of the private sector, dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises. (ADB, 2007) Participation of women in this private sector is crucial and encouraging them to participate more actively is a national priority, and has been addressed clearly in the upcoming National Five Year Socio-Economic Plan. (Ban de In, 2006) However, there is a big gap between the policies that exist on paper and what actually occurs in practice. There are few initiatives and programs that support women in business. Women need additional assistance, as they have to undertake many other responsibilities in their lives outside of work. (Ban de In, 2006) The number of women, who are under employed or unemployed is still high, and there are far fewer women in higher education. In the 15-35 age group, the rate of illiteracy among women is double that of men. (ADB, 2007) The situation is particularly appalling in remote communities and regions the ethnic minority groups reside. The added load of domestic tasks make women, especially those living in rural areas, bear a deficit both physically and mentally, preventing them from taking part in social activities. They are also exposed to social evils and domestic violence. (Fahey et al, 2002). Domestic violence, as in many parts of the world, is major source of concern in Vietnam. Many of the women themselves however, think that it is acceptable in many situations. A survey funded by UNICEF, found that 60% of women between the ages of 15 and 49, living in both urban and rural areas, considered domestic violence as acceptable if they (the women) didn't care for their children properly or talked back to or refused sexual intercourse with their husbands. Some even accepted punishment for cooking substandard meals. (Vietnam News, 2007) The Vietnamese government has recently (12 November, 2007) approved a draft of a "Bill on DomesticViolence Prevention and Control," but it will surely be a slow process to undo years of accepted practice both by men and women. (Khac Kien, 2007) To reiterate the changes for women in Vietnam, although Vietnamese women have legal rights that women in many developing countries are still fighting for, due to both historical and cultural factors, Vietnamese women tend to be disproportionately disadvantaged when it comes to actually exercising their legal rights. On average, women work longer hours and are paid less than men; women have limited access to resources such as land, property, and formal credit and job training; and women are inadequately represented in decision-making positions, particularly at the local level. Domestic violence, prostitution, and human trafficking remain concerns. Women from ethnic minorities are particularly disadvantaged: at least one in four is illiterate, and they have much higher infant and maternal mortality rates. (ADB, 2007) Cambodia, like Vietnam, has been growing rapidly over the past few years but unlike Vietnam, still remains one of the poorest countries in East Asia and poverty in the rural areas is especially widespread. On a smaller scale, the Cambodian government has made some in-roads for women and equality. They have established a ministry - The Ministry of Women's Affairs and Veteran - specifically responsible for the affairs of women, including their legal protection against violence and human trafficking, and the inclusion of regulations to provide opportunities for them to participate equally in the process of national development and reconstruction. In this endeavor, the Cambodian National Council for Women was set up, together with a plan (Neary Ratanak Plan), which focused on six priority areas, including health, education, poverty, finance, protection and entrepreneurship. (ADB, 2006) Although some changes have been made to benefit Cambodian women within these six priority areas, women remain disadvantaged. For example, although there has been a marked increase in the number of girls enrolling in primary level education, inequalities still exist among those over twenty; while women have seen improvements in preventive and curative healthcare, there remains a lack of prenatal and birth care. (ADB, 2006) "Women's participation in Cambodia is extremely limited" (WB, 2007) but there have been some improvements. Women now hold 15% of seats in councils and 4% of commune councils have female chiefs. (WB, 2007) Overall participation in politics however, remains low in fact Cambodia has the lowest number of women in public life. (Urashima, 2007) This can be attributed to the lower levels of education of women, family responsibilities, together with the social view that politics is not for women, which in turn would demoralize women and diminish their confidence. According to the World Bank Report (2007) most Cambodian couples prefer to make decisions together and if they are not made jointly, it will more likely be the woman who will have the final word. Decisions concerned with money are usually made by the man however, but it is the women, unlike the Vietnamese, who deal with credit and are regarded as more able to manage the finances. This new position for women however, is double edged. She will probably not have a say in how this money is spent and in many cases, she will become liable for the debt. (WB, 2007) Economic growth and change over the last ten years has had noticeable consequences on the employment and incomes of women. One of the main reasons for this has been the development of the garment industry, where women represent over eighty percent of the workforce. The impact of this relates to a portion, typically a large portion, of their wage that they remit. Dahlberg (2006) found that the average worker remitted around thirty five percent of their income. These remittances are very important to their families, which are predominantly rural households, as they pay for food and health and are sometimes sufficient to buy livestock or fertilizer, or even education for their brothers and sisters, leaving very little for their own well being. (WB, 2007) The situation in terms of violence for women in Cambodia has not changed especially domestic violence. A study undertaken by Zimmerman (1995) shows that between thirteen to twenty-three percent of married women have experienced violence. In summary then, the changes brought about by economic development are similar for both Cambodian and Vietnamese women. Like the Vietnamese government, the Cambodian Government has succeeded in better positioning women by narrowing the gender gaps in terms of improved income, education, and health care. However, they still continue to exist. Overall, women do not receive the same education as men, differences in wages persist, and women are underrepresented in the public arenas. They also share the lack of either access to credit or the use of credit, the burden of managing both household tasks and income generating work and the apparent inequality in the number of hours they have to work (including in the home) in comparison with men. (WB, 2007) So, while economic development in Southeast Asia has been rapid, and has bought many changes and improvements for women, these improvements differ in varying degrees between countries, genders and social groups. This essay has focused on the changes brought to women in Vietnam and Cambodia and has shown that these changes although similar vary to some degree. Asian Development Bank (2006) 'Perspectives and Activities' Gender Network. Editorial. March. www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/GNN/newsletter-14.pdf 5 December, 2007 Asian Development Bank. (2007) 'Country Strategy and Program Update 2007-2010: Vietnam', September. www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/VIE/2006/csp0100.asp 2, December, 2007 Ban de In (2006) 'On Equal Footing', Vietnam Economic Times No 147. 01/05/2006 reported by VCCI and MPDF http://www.vneconomy.com.vn/vet/index.phpbackissues=147&id=16179¶m=info 2 December, 2007 Dahlberg, Elisabet. (2005) 'Insights into migration and spending patterns based on a small-scale study of garment workers in Phnom Penh', Working Paper 221. Stockholm School of Economics. December. Embassy for the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the United States of America (2002) 'Strategy for advancement of women in Vietnam.' 02/05/2002. Domestic. Source: Vietnam National Assembly. http://www.vietnamembassy-usa.org/news/story.phpd=20020205010644&print=yes Fahey, et al. (2002) 'Women in Vietnam', Country Briefing Paper for Asian Development Bank. Food and Agriculture Organization of the united Nations (2001) 'Women in Agriculture, Environment and Rural Production'. Fact Sheet Vietnam. http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/wpre0113.htm 3 December, 2007 Khac Kein (2007) 'UN Congratulates Viet Nam on NA passage of domestic violence law', Communist Party of Viet Nam Online Newspaper. 11/21/2007 http://www.cpv.org.vn/details_e.asptopic=14&subtopic=99&leader_topic=175&id=BT21110774987 11 December, 2007 Lubeck, P. (1998) 'Winners and Losers in the Asia-Pacific', in G. Thompson (ed.), Economic Dynamism in the Asia Pacific, London/Canada/USA: Routledge. Mia Hyun, et al. (2007) 'Sharing Growth: equity and development in Cambodia. Equity report for World Bank. Report No. 39809-KH. June 4. East Asia Pacific Region. Rusten, Carolyn et al. (2004) 'The challenges of decentralisation design in Cambodia', CDRI Monograph No. 1. Phnom Penh VietNamNet (2007) 'Vietnamese women assert role in national development', 02/10/2007. Source: Vietnam National Assembly. http://english.vietnamnet.vn/news/2007/10/746911 2 December, 2007 Vietnam News (2007) 'GSO reveals results of domestic violence survey.' (04-12-2007) http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/showarticle.phpnum=03SOC041207 5 December, 2007 Urashima, Cheryl (2005) 'Mechanisms to Promote and Support the Integration of Gender into Mainstream Policies and Programmes to Achieve Gender Equality Objectives in Cambodia: Assessment of a Royal Government of Cambodia-led initiative'. Working Papers on Gender and Aid Effectiveness in Southeast Asia March. siteresources.worldbank.org/.../Resources/502632-1170188546240/Gender&Aid-Effectiveness-kh.pdf 4 December, 2007 Zimmerman, C. (1995) 'Plates in a basket will rattle: Domestic violence in Cambodia'. Phnom Penh: The Asia Foundation, USAID. Read More