The Use of Different Forms of Participant Observation - Essay Example

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION (COVERT AND OVERT) Introduction The focal point of the paper is to discuss the arguments for the use of different forms of participant observation like covert and overt. Alongside it would be stated when, if at all, covert forms can be legitimately used in social science research. In general senses there are two principal methods of research. One is overt or the obvious usages of tools with complete awareness of the participants and the other is covert where the participants are not aware of the research being done. It should be mentioned that in an overt method of research qualitative form is generally used. This is not to say that quantitative methods are not used in overt operations. However, during a covert operation mostly quantitative methods are used as qualitative method demands the direct and conscious involvement of the participants during a test. (Banerjee, 2005) Overt Method One of the primary ways in which overt methodology is defined is in terms of its difference from the so-called 'pure sciences' such as physics, chemistry, biology etc. Its use of theory and methodology is, therefore, closely related to this distinction. Academics of marketing often emphasize what too many of us are utterly obvious, that there is no certainty in the study of marketing sciences. This is because marketing not only deals with fiscal variables but also it deals with humanity, which is inherently transient. Taking this element of transience into consideration marketing scientists has to use not just quantitative but also qualitative methods of study. (Fletcher, 2005) A Qualitative method of study differs from the usual quantitative methods (used in the study of pure sciences) in the sense that it tends to be far more subjective. This is in sharp contrast to the methods used in pure sciences which are exclusively objective. The research methods for marketing are a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods. Being open to qualitative methods of study also allows social scientists to incorporate non-quantitative data (i.e. non-numerical data, such as words, images, gestures, impressions etc.) in their study. Since human beings tend to operate in terms of such data and not in terms of the terminology used in ordinary sciences this broader outlook is far more applicable in the study of social sciences. In keeping with the methodology employed in marketing researches the theories too are formulated and used keeping in mind that they aren't necessarily applicable to all conditions. Be it psychology, history, political science or economics human events are most likely to influence the rules which define the basic theories of a marketing subject. Success in the field of marketing researches can therefore be achieved if and only if it is understood that the subject has no space or opportunity for water-tight methodologies or theories. (Berkowitz, 2004) It can always be stated that Qualitative research is a process that includes interpretative paradigm under the measures of theoretical assumptions and the entire approach is based on sustainability that is depended on people's experience in terms of communication. It can also be mentioned that the total approach is based on the fact that reality is created on the social formulations. It can also be mentioned that the basic target of qualitative research is instrumented towards social context under normal circumstances where it would be possible to interpret, decode and describe the significances of a phenomenon. The entire process is operational under the parameter of interpretative paradigm that can minimize illusion and share subjectivity under contextualization, authenticity and complexity of the investigation. (Rigby, 2005) The basic advantages of qualitative measures are multifold. Firstly, it presents a completely realistic approach that the statistical analysis and numerical data used in research based on quantitative research cannot provide. Another advantage of qualitative measures is that it is more flexible in nature in terms of collected information interpretation, subsequent analysis and data collection. It also presents a holistic point of view of the investigation. Furthermore this approach of research allows the subjects to be comfortable thus be more accurate as research is carried on in accordance to the subject's own terms. (Sen, 2001) However it could be stated that the most basic distinction is between a quantitative or qualitative evaluation. In a quantitative evaluation, the purpose is to come up with some objective metric of human performance that can be used to compare interaction phenomena. This can be contrasted with a qualitative evaluation, in which the purpose is to derive deeper understanding of the human interaction experience. A typical example of a quantitative evaluation is the empirical user study, a controlled experiment in which some hypothesis about interaction is tested through direct measurement. A typical example of a qualitative evaluation is an open-ended interview with relevant users. As a result this method would be used widely. As descriptions of statistical methods that will be used it could be stated that in order to isolate the results for this particular study, only a survey questionnaire done would have been utilized. These questionnaires would be delivered to potential customers and retailers along with the administrators of the events. The results were divided into these same categories to ensure validity and reliability. General information in regard to identifiers was utilized in order to ensure that there would be no bias. (Dollard, 2006) In the context of overt operations communication relates to inter personnel office communication such as phone, documents, memos, email, FAX and voicemail. These communicative systems could be termed as formal communication system. There are also other forms of communication and it could be termed as informal communication. Informal communications could be defined as taking place synchronously in face-to-face settings. Questionnaire data produce estimates of between 25% and 70% of time being spent in face-to-face interaction, with these figures depending on job type. Similarly, and again, depending of the industry formal communication system may occupy about 54% to about 91% of the time spent on an average. (Border, 2002) Obviously it could be stated that formal communication are almost always well planned and structurally sound. On the other hand, informal communications are, revealed in studies, brief, unplanned, and frequent. Informal communication supports a number of different functions: the execution of work-related tasks; co-ordination of group activity; transmission of culture and social functions such as team building. (Lamb, 2004) Its importance is shown by research into scientific collaboration demonstrating that physical distance is a strong predictor of whether scientists will co-publish, because people who are physically collocated are more likely to communicate frequently and informally. Questionnaire studies also suggest that physical proximity supports frequent opportunistic conversations which are vital to the planning and definitional phases of projects. Other questionnaire studies support the effects of proximity and hence informal communications on social and cultural knowledge. Researchers are more likely to be familiar with, and to respect the work of colleagues who sit close to them. The two main types of prototype system that have been built both involve synchronous audio and video. The first provides a permanently open link between the commons areas of two geographically separated sites, with the aim of facilitating unplanned conversations between workers at the two locations. Commons area connections have been moderately successful in promoting brief social interactions. However there was evidence that briefly seeing someone over the video link was less likely to promote an extended interaction, than an equivalent face-to-face sighting. (Dos, 2006) The second class of system for remote informal communications involves Desktop video, either point-to-point or between multiple locations. Some of these systems provide additional visual information about the communication status of the call recipient, using a "glance" feature. Here callers can check the availability of their recipient, by opening a visual link for a few seconds, prior to initiating the conversation. An eventuation of one such system showed, however, that it does not effectively replicate face-to-face interaction. (Edelman, 2005) Overt research communications also raise numerous questions for interaction theories. Research conversations are mainly opportunistic, so how do participants co-ordinate and initiate them, given that they are unanticipated There are also often time lags between business interactions: how do people maintain and re-establish context, given such lags Finally, business communications often occur between frequent interactions who often share large amounts of background knowledge. What affect does this shared knowledge have on initiating conversations and managing conversation context (Roy, 2001) But it should be taken into contention that to obtain such goals in finding legitimate and verified answers substantial and thorough research should be operated in a far larger scale. For example, for interactions away from desk, the first and foremost variable required is to find out the exact location of occurrence. Next it should be looked into whether there are enough variables on the structural properties, examining how conversations are opened and closed and the ways that participants introduce and agree on conversation context. Another test prediction is about frequency. Frequent interaction should share background context as well as being familiar with each other. We therefore expected frequent interactions to show less formality in opening and closing interactions as well as reduced need for context setting. (Bandura, 2005) Covert Method On the other hand the aspects related to covert research operation is mostly related to ethical and moral or even legal questions. It is also use for determining the behavioral pattern or score of the subject. This is where the Legal and Ethical Considerations in relation to Tests and Measurements in research becomes a serious aspect. This because the contents of these tests are more often than not is culturally biased. By this statement it is considered that whether intentionally or not the content prepared by an individual tends to be inclined towards a specific culture whereby the subject appearing for the test belonging to the same or homogenous culture tends to gain advantage over the subjects belonging to a different culture. This is not to suggest that this is done intentionally but the fact is that an individual who is preparing a content or module of research test belong to a specified cultural background and the various aspects of that said cultural background influences the individual and though the subconscious notion these aspects are incorporated within the covert research test module or content. (Roy, 2006) However, there are more serious allegations in this context. Such a case took place I the field of a psychology covert method of operation. In the case of Larry P. versus Wilson Riles the allegation was very serious indeed. It was alleged that the state of California used the covert research tests to determine or classify the students for the educational institutions. The norm was that the candidates were classified in accordance to the scores obtained in these Intelligence Quotient or IQ tests. The subjects with lower Intelligence Quotient or IQ tests results were to be placed in the EMR or the institutes subjected for the educable mentally retarded and has to follow the program formulated for the mentally retarded. It was found that the white candidates scored more than their black counterparts in general sense. Thus it was obvious that the black students were placed with the EMR while the white students attended the regular courses. (Roberts, 2005) The two main methods of covert testing intelligence that were alleged to be biased were the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. There were several issues that indicated that the tests were biased. It was alleged that the content prepared were based on the criteria of the middle class population and particularly the while groups. It was alleged that the tests included the use of toys and it was also found that the children of the white cultural backgrounds were more familiar with toys. Thus there was a clear advantage for the children of the white communities. Moreover, it was also alleged that the language incorporated in these tests were more inclined towards the vocabulary of the white communities and less familiar with the black candidates. This clearly marked the feature of difference between the two communities the result was directly evident in the overall intelligence quotient scores. More allegations were to follow in the Larry P. versus Wilson Riles case. It was reported that the cultural background of the examiner was a chief motivating factor for the ultimate score obtained. In other words the allegation pointed out that as more of the examiners were white the black students tend to score lesser. Furthermore it was alleged that the standardization samples of the tests were basically and fundamentally white based. (Cook, 1998) It is true that the case was ultimately dismissed in favor of the defense and the testing methods were not withdrawn but it was stated that the tests and performances should be more clearly and homogenously defined and incorporated. However, it should be stated that though this particular case was dissolved by the Court Litigation in favor of the methods it can be sated that there are still many critics of the intelligence tests and its use of determination of classifying students into groups as this was clearly an example of Educational Discrimination where the Black Students suffered the most. This is not only an aspect of Legal Problems but also attached to ethical considerations too. (Kar, 2006) The Testing Problems and the Test Bias tend towards Racial Discrimination and the most affected part of it is the children of the Minority Groups. It may be an issue that the Minority Group Children may be intellectually inferior to their white counterparts but it is no logical or ethical solution to regard it as mild or serious Mental Retardation. It is not only the African Americans that are affected but a wide range of Mexican Americans are affected by these covert Intelligence Tests. This scenario cannot be termed as an ideal background of Equal Education system and Elementary Education in general is suffering for this issue. It can be well stated that a complete Educational Diagnosis is need for the issue in order to find the cure. (Roberts, 2007) However, from an ethical point of view it should be noted that a tool relating to social science can hardly be neutral in any sense because it depends too much on the social structure and demands a specific form of socio cultural background dependence for success. In this respect it can be stated that classification tests like the intelligence tests cannot be completely neutral and thus the covert methods like the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children can only be modified to bridge the gaps among the cross cultural variations but can hardly be eradicated as these test in this context deals with the aspects of society and the society of the United States is completely a confluence of multiple cultural backgrounds. Thus this instrument of social science like the intelligent test can hardly be without any form of bias. (King, 2006) From the ethical point of view it can be stated that the classification on the basis of intelligence should be banned but then compromising on such grounds would surely give rise to mediocrity and would surely bring down the national level of quality in terms of education. The best possible ethical aspect in this context would be the proper appointment and use of a school psychologist who would look over the actual aspects of individual skills and abilities by concentrating on person to person behavioral assessments. Thus with closer assessment of the school psychologists it would be possible to illustrate the individual capacities in the illumination of implications that are chiefly socio political. In such manner the basic concept of the intelligence test or the perspective of the elements of intelligence would not be misused. (Sen, 2006) It should be stated that the Legal and Ethical Considerations in relation to covert Tests and Measurements in research should always be devoid of Test Bias or biased Educational Legislations. The student rights should always be honored and practiced and this would be directed towards openness in terms of social influence and activated towards better position of the Elementary Secondary Education methods and systems. The School Psychologists, the administration should work in simultaneous measures with the Intelligence Tests as these are tested and found to be quite useful for the benefit of the state and the society in the long run. Thus it could well be stated that the issue that gave rise to the alleged educational discrimination could well be directed towards the eradication of racism in the future. (Lamb, 2004) Exceptions There are specific exceptions to the rule. Apparently, there are situation when the utilitarian perspective should be taken into consideration that would be more relevant in the context of the given situation. Act Utilitarianism represents all ethical theories where the goal is maximization of some measure of goodness. These are outcome-oriented ethics where goodness is measured by its results. In other words Utilitarianism is a doctrine that confirms whether or not actions have been useful or beneficial to a large group, once applied. (Deb, 2006) It is important to understand that the concept related to the aspects of zero tolerance developed from the viewpoint that has its base in the parameters that actually rose as a classical utilitarianism reaction. From the parameters of Act Utilitarianism it should be remembered that Mill placed his argument that the there is much pain in the penal system and it tend to affect an individual by a large margin and the aspects of penal consequences should be taken into consequences while evaluating the entire process of proposed activity, in this case covert research methods. Take for example if a situation when it is important to understand the basic psyche of the general population of a given enemy state over a specific issue. Under such condition an overt operation of research is not possible thus it is well relevant to use covert research method as it is beneficial for the nation as a whole. (Anand, 2006) Conclusion In the conclusion it would be relevant to mention that both overt and covert methods are beneficial and permissible for the purpose of research. The basic rationale behind this though process lies in the fact that, in general sense, a research is directed towards the greater goodness of the society in the long run and thus for a short run period it would be acceptable to allow a covert action. However, the dilemma remains that it is important to evaluate the need of the research that justifies the cause of using a covert operation in a given research. (Podolski, 2006) References: Anand, V; (2006); The Process of Thought and Perception; Auckland: HDT Ltd. Bandura, A. (2005); Social-economic Learning Theory; Englewood Ciffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc Banerjee, D; (2005); Details from Research Methods; New Delhi: AIIMS Berkowitz, L., (2004); Ethical Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control; New Haven and London: Yale University Press Border, S; (2002); Fire of the Mind; Wellington: National Book Trust Cook, V. I; (1998); Being Personal: The Family Showcase; Albany: Large Alliance Publishers; Deb, J; (2006); Introduction to Research Methodologies; Bloemfontein: ABP Ltd Dos, M; (2006); Future of Thought Process; Christchurch: Alliance Publications Dollard, John & Doob, Leonard W; (2006); Ethics & Legal Context in Decision Building; New Haven and London: Yale University Press Edelman, S; (2005); Evaluation Techniques in Ethical Management; Bloemfontein: ABP Ltd Fletcher, R; (2005); Principals: Beliefs and Knowledge; Believing and Knowing; Dunedin: Howard & Price Kar, P; (2006); History of Psychology and Related Applications; Kolkata: Dasgupta & Chatterjee King, H; (2006); Research Principals Today; Auckland: HBT & Brooks Ltd Lamb, D; (2004); Cult to Culture: The Development of Civilization on the Strategic Strata; Wellington: National Book Trust Podolski, V; (2006); Public Perception of Perceptions: An Approach towards Qualitative Intelligence; Dunedin: IBL & Alliance Ltd Roberts, O M; (2005); Outline of Global Research; Wellington: National Book Trust Roy, D P; (2001); Birth of Thought: The Evolving Intelligence; Part II; Auckland: HDT Ltd. Sen, S; (2001); Difference between Thinking and Acting; Bloemfontein: ABP Ltd. Read More