A comparison of effects of categorized and uncategorized words on memory - Essay Example

A comparison of effects of categorized and uncategorized words on memory Introduction The cognitive approach to psychology looks at the different processes through which the mind deals with information and involves the areas of language, learning, perception, and memory. For example, Virginia Gonzalez, author of Language and Cognitive Development in Second Language Learning, stated that the effects of bilingualism on cognition are mediated by the proficiency levels in both languages (Baker 1993). Cognitive psychologists commonly use models to explain information flow or represent how the mind deals with information instead of defining specific areas of the brain for each aspect of memory. This model is best illustrated by a computer system where information is received and processed variably by the brain before it is stored into memory. Atkinson and Shiffrin's "multi-store model of memory" theory posits that there are three distinct memory stores - sensory, short term, and long term. The amount of attention paid and "rehearsal" of information affects likelihood of this information passing first into short term and then into long-term memory. Sensory memory has a very limited duration of about a second for visual store and two seconds for the acoustic store. Short term memory also has a limited storage capacity and a very short duration and can be lost through decay or displacement as new information is added to the store. Organizing information in short term memory through "chunking" enables it to pass into long term memory. These chunks can be acronyms, words, phrases, or anything else that links the information together into a meaningful structure. By chunking information, a much greater quantity can be stored. Memory can decay over time, or there can be problems of retrieval, where the memory is there but cannot be recalled. Information in long term memory is more likely to be in the form of semantics, organized by general meaning rather than in greater detail. In a study by Tulving and Pearlstone (1966), participants' recall of word lists of 12, 24, and 48 words in categories of 1, 2, or 4 words was tested. The answer sheets were used with and without category headings to measure the effects of categorization on recall. Participants showed a significant increase in words recalled when the category headings were present on the answer sheet. This study shows that organizing information in memory increases the amount of recall. Objective of the Study Generally, the study's aim was to approximate studies [such as that of Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)] to determine whether word categorization could increase the number of words recalled from a prepared word list. In more specific point of view, the study is aimed at: 1. Identifying the factors that could help people recall more numbers of words 2. Assess which among the given factors (as stated in the first specific objective) is better be applied to specific age range of the people 3. Evaluate if there could be a difference to the number of words recall if the subjects are of different gender, social status and level of education earned. Hypotheses The null hypothesis supposes that any variation in the number of words recalled between the categorised and uncategorised word lists will be due to chance factors. The alternative hypothesis assumes that there will be a significant difference in the number of words recalled between the categorised and uncategorised word lists such that the number of words recalled from the former will be higher. Methodology Research Design The experimental method was used to try and establish a causal relationship.A repeated measures design was utilized to limit the number of participants required and to reduce participant variables. To minimize order effects, counterbalancing was used, with half the participants hearing the uncategorized list first and the remaining half hearing the categorized list followed by the uncategorized list. Participants The study was participated in by close relations of the experimenter. An opportunity sample was used, as the target population was insufficiently defined to use other sampling methods such as random or stratified sampling. The limited time of the prevented the selection of a self-selecting sample. An equal number of male and female participants between the ages of 18 and 40 composed the sample. Materials Two word lists were used in the experiment, one in which the words were organized into categories and the other list - of uncategorized words. Participants were given written instructions. Recalled words were recorded on a blank sheet of paper. Familiar, recognizable English words were used while difficult or unusual words were excluded. Both lists were composed of 20 words divided into 4 groups containing 5 words each. Procedure The participant was comfortably seated in a quiet room and was handed a sheet of printed instructions to read. The first word list was read out loud by the experimenter at approximately one every 2 seconds. At the end of the list, the participant then wrote down as many words as he/she could remember. The second list was given in the same manner as the first. The participant again wrote down as many words as he/she could recall. Upon completion of the experiment the participant was fully debriefed on the purpose of the experiment. Results and Discussion Table 1 - Summary table of results Categorized Uncategorized Total 248 165 Mean 12.4 8.25 Median 12 8.5 Mode 12 9 Range 7-22 4-16 Getting the mean and median of the data collected is important so that the average number of words recalled (in the categorized and uncategorized version) could be attained. Mode, on the other hand, is equally important because it provides the average value on the most common number of words recalled (both in the categorised and uncategorised version). The range shows the maximum and minimum number of words recalled by the respondents. A significant difference was found between the total number of words recalled in the categorized and uncategorized conditions. The words recalled from the former exceeded those recalled from the latter list by a ratio of 3:2. A corresponding difference in the mean scores between the two conditions is also revealed, albeit subject to influence by extremely high or low scores that can give a distorted picture of central tendency, which can be more accurately shown by the median.Nevertheless, the two sums still have a 3:2 ratio. Additional graphical description of results Fig 1. Mean number of words recalled Fig 2. Median number of words recalled Fig 3. Mode number of words recalled Similar observations can also be made from the three figures shown above, which show more distinct differences between the two conditions. All three cases reveal significant increase in words recalled from the categorized word list against that of the uncategorized list. Discussion The number of words written down is likely to be the amount of words remembered which gives the study its surface validity. Repeated measures in the experiment's design ensured that each participant was tested in the same environment simultaneously for both conditions. The independent variable appears to be influencing the dependent variable as nearly all participants scored higher on the categorized list than the uncategorized list. The independent variable was operationalized by the word lists being presented in a categorized or non-categorized format. The organization of words into groups is a form of categorization. The dependent variable - the amount of words recalled - was operationalized by the participants writing down the words remembered on the answer sheet. This was an effective way of measuring words remembered. An alternative may have been to have the participant vocalize the words recalled but this is unlikely to have had any effect on the results. While the methodology varies slightly from Tulving and Pearlstone's study, the principle is the same and the results show the same significant increase in words recalled from the categorized word list. By organizing the words into groups, the information was possibly, as Miller suggested, "chunked" allowing a greater quantity of information to be passed into long term memory. The median number of words recalled from the uncategorized list was 8.5, within Miller's proposed number of "slots" in short term memory, 7 plus or minus 2. The categorization of the information gives the participant a cue to aid recall. Tulving and Pearlstone provided the category headings in one of the conditions of their study, which further increased recall. Category headings were not provided on the answer sheet in this study, but participants commented on the groups of words when recalling and it appears that the participants were using the category headings as cues to help recall. Conclusion (In reference to the Hypothesis) Results show that there is a 50% difference between words recalled from the categorized and uncategorized lists. Such marked difference is unlikely to have arisen by chance. Thus the null hypothesis - that any variation in the number of words recalled between the categorized and uncategorized word lists is due to chance factors - is rejected. Consequently the alternative hypothesis, that there will be a significant difference in the number of words recalled between the categorized and uncategorized word lists such that the number of words recalled from the categorized word list will be higher, is supported. Based on the results discussed above, writing down the words remembered and/or vocalizing the words are two of the most useful ways to assess the number of words that can be remembered. Meanwhile, categorization of words is the best tool for any person to increase the number of words that they can remember. Appendix: 1. Uncategorized word Lists assessment derived distribution economic environment export factors financial formula function identified income indicate individual interpretation involved issues labour legal legislation major method occur percent period policy process assume authority available benefit concept consistent constitutional context contract create data definition required research response Categorized Word Lists Business Food Franchise Marketing Pharmaceutical Printing Stores Subjects Mathematics English Literature History Philosophy Communication Writing Reading Photography Countries Philippines Iran Qatar Yugoslavia USA New Zealand Ireland London Indonesia India Thailand Australia Cambodia Israel School Things and Tools Bag Pen Pencil Paper Books Ruler Manuals Diskette Cards Computer Lenses Microscope Projectors LCD Monitor References: Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. "Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes." Cited in K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-195). New York: Academic Press, 1968. Baker, Colin. (1993).Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters Ltd. James, W. The Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt, 1890. Miller G. A. "The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information." Psychological Review Vol. 63, pp. 81-97, 1956. Tulving, E. and Pearlstone, Z. "Availability vs Accessibility of information in memory for words." Journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour 5, 381-391, 1966. Read More