Absenteeism from School - Essay Example

Absenteeism from School The aim of the proposed research is to investigate absenteeism in schools and single out the main trends and problems causedby absenteeism among school students. It is assumed that students tend to formulate judgments in terms of scales of estimate that appear to be related not only to the objective situation but also to their past experiences. Thus, an individual's absenteeism is determined both by the information that he derives from the situation and by the set or expectation in terms of which he views the situation. The desirability of a situation is estimated in reference to internalized scales and norms of value which are determined by past experience (Burgess, 2003). That which conforms to these norms tends to be most readily perceived, and that which departs from the norms tends to be rejected. Since the absenteeism tends not only to confirm desirability estimates but also to strengthen other related expectations that are highly valued, the individual develops systems of more or less highly interrelated value expectations relative to his family, school, community, church, political party, nation, work group, and so on. These different systems may be mutually reinforcing or they may be in conflict with each other. Young people frequently experience conflict between the values acquired from their parents and those acquired from their age peers. They may also perceive conflict between the values acquired at church and those acquired from their science teachers. Because of their high degree of independence of validating outcomes, they come to serve as stable reference points in terms of which experienced outcomes are evaluated as satisfying or unsatisfying. They also serve as comparing criteria and, as such, enable the individual to evaluate the values of other persons, groups, and subgroups. The student affected by absenteeism is one who makes evaluations in terms of his value systems without reference to the objective validity of his judgments (Byman and Burgess 2001). The value of the proposed research will be justified by increased number of drop outs from schools and low scores showed by many low class students in working areas. The concern has been validity: the truth value of research outcomes is stronger when both the data and the design are valid. Legitimating means that the research methods are consistent with the philosophical underpinnings of the question. For instance, the positivist assumes an objective reality; the postmodernist assumes no objective reality and no objective, truth. While a perfectly accurate portrayal of our notions of validity across the continuum is not possible, researchers can outline the major dimensions of thinking (Coffey and Atkinson 2003). Taking into account the nature of research, it is important to note that concerns about validity will include both external and internal validity, on the one hand, and measurement validity, on the other hand. Both these categories of concern are generated by the need to have confidence that our test, data, or design does indeed measure or reflect or produce what researchers intend it to measure, reflect, or produce. Without internal validity, one can only conclude that the approach being used to answer the question of interest is capable of estimating the relationship, and no statement about causation is possible. Even though there are those among the ranks of qualitative researchers who say they are not interested in internal validity, those who wish to infer causal relationships must be concerned with this aspect of their research. In fact, even some who dismiss this concern as being only a quantitative researcher's dilemma will admit to processes like triangulation and theoretical sampling, which are conceptual attempts and techniques to get at internal validity (Reid 1999). Absenteeism level is difficult to measure, so interview methods will help to collect required data and evaluate the level and causes of this problem. The research interview as a strategy to find out from people things that researchers cannot directly observe. Interviews can be structured (standardized) and unstructured. Absenteeism will measured using structured interview. The structured interview will be designed to collect the same data from each respondent, while the unstructured interview may be used to identify broader issues. Structured interviews and partially structured interviews can be subjected to validity checks similar to those used in evaluating questionnaires. That is, are the issues under analysis consistent with the purpose of the study. Through probes, follow-up questions, and attention to nonverbal cues, the researcher is able to enhance the data collected. The data are valid to the extent the researcher is able effectively to execute these tasks. Limitations to validity exist, as with other qualitative methods, when the subjective bias of the interviewer affects the interpretation of the data in ways that misrepresent the subjects' reality. These invalidations may be more likely with the unstructured interview than with the structured one (Burgess, 2003). It is assumed that interviewing will be made a more valid technique in several ways. First, when structured, the questions can be checked against the objectives of the study. Second, a high level of interviewer training increases validity. Third, having several interviewers randomly assigned to subjects reduces error by spreading bias throughout the sample. Fourth, checking for consistency across subjects increases reliability, which adds to validity. Fifth, debriefing the interviewers after data collection also can help increase validity. In this process the researcher is able to check for interviewer bias and consider its effects on the interviewer's findings. To conceptualize the logic in applying the interactive continuum, researchers suggest three phases that flow naturally from what has just been presented. In the first phase, the continuum assumes consistency between question and method. In the second phase, one evaluates the extent to which there is consistency. And in the third phase, each study can be examined closely for issues of design validity (Burgess, 2003). The researcher should take into account that collecting "data" requires highly sophisticated researchers. To be able to attend to the context, the participants and their roles, the timing and structure of observed events, the connections between individuals and their problems, and the individuals' interpretations of their own situations while at the same time coding what the subjects fail to say, what they lack, what they gloss over, what they ignore, as well as interpreting their imagery making and their feelings, indeed, all require superhuman coding skills. Collected data are assumed to be gathered by individuals with highly developed and comprehensive observation skills, and, to the extent that such assumptions are not met, the resultant data are invalid (Burgess, 2003). To conceptualize the logic in applying the interactive continuum, researchers suggest three phases that flow naturally from what has just been presented. In the first phase, the continuum assumes consistency between question and method. In the second phase, one evaluates the extent to which there is consistency. And in the third phase, each study can be examined closely for issues of design validity (Burgess, 2003). Researchers emphasize the process of critique--asking the questions about the research studies one reads is the important activity. Two people may come to different judgments about the truth value of any one article. Each critique is a value judgment. The four articles researchers refer to here may be critiqued by others using our model, but their conclusions might differ in some limited ways. While the results do add to the knowledge base about multicultural environments, Fuller limited the study to the cultural environments of schools in Texas, Nevada, and Arizona. The narrative does not provide deep enough description to be able to estimate applicability. In addition, the participants in the study were self-selected. For whatever reason, each chose to teach in his or her location. Those reasons may differ for other teachers to whom the results might be applied. A good researcher needs to be familiar with a variety of methods. Multiple methods may enhance the quality of a research study. Byman and Burgess (2001) demonstrate how the use of multiple methods increased the quality of her research. In her case, however, all of the methods she uses tend to be qualitative: interviews, member checks, and criticalincident techniques. Coffey and Atkinson (2003) also use multiple methods to improve their insights and the interpretability of research, and they use mathematical algorithms and mathematical simulations to enhance and support their interpretations. Increasingly, researchers are using multiple methods to improve the quality of their research. Doing so is consistent with the qualitative-quantitative continuum, which is based upon the assumption that investigators should not be tied to any single methodology. The research question always should dictate the method. The weaving and sifting of categories of variables to formulate the relationships among them allows for, at least, a claim of subjectivity on the part of the researcher and, at most, a gross misinterpretation of actual facts. The grounded theorists accuse the empiricists of imposing a priori rating-scale values and codes on the subjects' responses, while it may be that the grounded theorists' own processual analysis is even more firmly based on researcher bias. The validity limitations that have already been put forth in this book related to observational data apply to case studies as well. However, the counterbalancing of information from documents with data from observation and interviews strengthens the resulting validity. Invalidity of one set of data can be checked by conflicting or supporting results from the other sources, which is a type of triangulation. Despite the fact that a group is an open system, a distinct theoretical advantage is gained from regarding it as a system in precarious balance. The inputs of a group may vary from minute to minute and from day to day depending upon changes in the behaviors and values put into the system. References Burgess, R.G. (2003). In the Field: An Introduction to Field Research, London: Allen and Unwin. Byman, A. and Burgess, R. (eds) (2001). Qualitative Research, London: Sage. Coffey, A.. and Atkinson, P.A. (2003). Making Sense of Qualitative Data: Complementary Strategies, Thousand Oaks CA: Sage. Reid, K. (1999). Combating School Absenteeism. Hodder Arnold H&S. Read More