Language Death and Endangerment of Languages - Essay Example

LANGUAGE DEATH It is estimated that as many as half of the estimated 6,000 languages spoken in the world today, are spoken only by adults, who are no longer teaching it to their next generation. This is an eminent threat of extinction to many world languages in the present time. Colonization and socio-economic pressure have forced the speakers of minority languages, not to transfer their cultural and tribal languages to their children, but for their better future; sacrifice their cultural traditions and languages. Globalization has resulted in the death of many languages and is becoming an important cultural issue. The endangered languages badly need to be protected from being eroded and should be treated as a living heritage. In the globalized world of today, the endangerment of languages has presented them as anthropomorphic organisms, with lives independent of their speakers. Throughout the world; the emergence of regional and international economic networks have, blurred the national boundaries. The highly industrialized countries have exercised their economic monopoly and have thus, led certain world languages to compete as imperial or hegemonic while jeopardizing many others. Languages are capable of negotiating their coexistence on their own terms and it seems quite surprising at times that languages; which are reliably passed down through generations; still become extinct. Languages are parasitic species whose vitality depends on the communicative behaviors of their speakers, who in turn respond adaptively to changes in their socio-economic ecologies (Mufwene, 2002). These adaptations have resulted in language shifts, endangerment and destruction and it's not at all surprising when we come across or read about killer languages. The death of a language occurs when it's speakers decrease in number and gradually diminish, an is taken over by a killer or a leading language. A language killer is a dominant language which is learned at the cost of the mother tongue rather than in addition to it. Though the essential characteristic of a killer language in not to eradicate a language, but most major languages can be identified as killers and this process is sometimes called linguistic cannibalism, glottophagy or language cannibalism (Tove, 2000). English today is considered to be the primary killer language of the world as compared to other popular languages like Chinese, Russian and French, etc. and sign; or other less powerful smaller cultural languages. When the speakers of a language shift to another language, their native language is neglected and the new language takes over. When a language dies, it does not just disappear naturally, but the speakers leave them voluntarily either for their own good reasons or for instrumental purposes. Globalization and Language Extinction The death of languages has usually been summoned by power as an important factor, which favored the language of the powerful over the less powerful nations and populations. During the past four centuries, this has been made more obvious by the European Colonization of the world, at least until the independence of the Asian countries and Africa, in the mid twentieth century. The economic relations of countries less industrialized, with their former colonial rulers, have been subject to the terms and language of their former rulers for economic exchange. The European languages have not only endangered the other languages but have been depicted as killer languages, about to replace all other languages (Crystal, 2000). In addition to this, a language is also endangered because it plays a vital role in the cost and benefit consideration; where the speakers need a particular language for socio-economic ecology. The survival of a language in the globalized economy can result in the giving up of a language for survival. A language can thus be doomed and eventually become extinct for the socio-economic benefits. For example, many African languages have recently lost not to political power, but to the competition among peers that have guaranteed a surer economic survival. This also shows that not only is there the possibility of a language being extinct, but also the emergence of new language verities. This is the outcome of language contact based on interaction among the populations in contact. To get another perspective on how globalization can result in the death of languages, the relocation of a population in a new territory or country cannot be overlooked, whether or not it is inhibited by an indigenous population. Though history tells us that colonization, in population genetics interpretation has involved different patterns of interaction, the more common political notion of colonization rests largely on the notion of more neutral population genetics. This shows that the consequences of colonization have surely resulted in the death of several languages, like Celtic languages in the Western Europe and some Native American languages. But this brings into light another interesting fact that it is not always the colonized populations that have lost their languages, it is sometimes the colonizers who have lost their languages. An example of this is the Norman French in England, or the Tutsi in Rwanda and Burundi, or in the Peranakan Chinese in the Straits of Malacca (Hoeningswald, 1989). The extinction of a language can also be caused if the speakers die of genocide or disease. But the most obvious reasons for language death are the culmination of language shift which can be due to internal and external pressures. These factors can be rituals, change in values, intermarriages or religious conversion. Under these circumstances it means that certain languages must adapt or perish. Many a times, the prospects for language survival are determined by the social forces and not by essential traits or the capacity for adaptation. Some scholars advocating the English Only movement in the mid-1980s have perpetuated the notion that certain languages are fitter than others, and the well developed ones will survive while the primitive ones will become extinct. On the other hand, some linguists have focused exclusively on structural linguistic factors, implying that a language can kill itself by becoming so impoverished or bankrupt that its function as a suitable means of communication is called into question (Sasse, 1992). In addition to this, the immigrants who have settled in different parts of the world have also contributed to the emergence of new languages. At the same time many tribal and local languages have been lost as a result of globalization. Like colonization, the terms globalization in English and mondialization in French have figured prominently in the literature on language endangerment (Yeung Yue-man, 2000). But the language community makes the choice whether to abandon the mother tongue because of self interest; so as to enjoy the opportunities open to the superior or dominant language community, or in response to compulsion and force. Whether deliberate or otherwise, the death of a language reinforces the ethnocentric prejudice, which is far common among the dominant groups, that certain languages are not fit to survive in the modern world. It also encourages the prevalent worldwide response to endangered cultures and their traditional values. Moreover, it reflects forces which are beyond the control of the speaker like discrimination, repression or exploitation by other groups, and in most cases, due to all three situations. And history has shown that language never succumbs to outside pressures alone, except in the case of genocide. It is not necessary for globalization to be universal and a critical issue to be addressed on language vitality is; whether the world wide interpretation of global economy, bears the same effect on the life of languages as well. As all countries do not have developed local economies, a particular common language for communication among the different branches of multinational companies is required. But the labor involved in the production of raw material or a vast majority of the population continues to speak its ancestral languages, and adopt it as an identity marker which distinguishes them from the wealthy minority, even in today's globalized world. Dying Languages: An Important Cultural Issue It has been estimated that as many as half of the estimated 6,000 languages spoken on this earth are 'moribund' which means that they are spoken only by adults, who are no longer teaching them to their next generations. And as the number of children learning these languages is declining measurably, an additionally 40 percent may soon be threatened. In other words, 90 percent of existing languages today are most likely to become seriously threatened or become extinct. This assessment is confirmed by linguists reporting the decline of languages on a global scale, but especially in the Americas, Africa, Australia and Southeast Asia (Brenzinger, 1992 & Schmidt, 1990). What makes us distinct from other nations and tribes, besides our skin, height, the color or eyes and hair etc. are the different languages we speak. These languages need to be treasures and protected like natural and cultural treasures. Although languages have been dying out for over 300 years, extinctions are occurring at a dramatic pace and are steadily on the increase. According to UNESCO, Australia is the country which has the largest number of endangered languages or languages that have vanished and died. Until the 1970s, the aboriginal population was forbidden to speak their 400 or so languages and only about 25 are still commonly spoken, while Wanyi, is spoken by two people only. The loss of ancestral languages and cultures; have been criticized by linguists, especially among populations which were colonized by the Europeans. They further argue that the cultures and their relevant languages must be preserved and revitalized by all means. At the global level when shift in a language occurs; even though it might appear to be with the consent of the speaker, but the factors behind might be different. Most of the times; especially in cases of minority parents who cease to speak their own language to their children, or who send their children to a dominant language school, might have had no choice. A school with the minority language as the medium of teaching might not exist, or what kind of education best supports their child's bilingual development might not be available to the parents. In addition to this, there is also likelihood that they have no knowledge of the long-term cultural implications of their choices. In most cases the cultural minorities have been made to believe that the choice is between two extremes i.e. either they can speak their minority language to their children and enroll them in a minority language school, so that the child learns his cultural traditions and not the dominant language. The other option left open to them is that they should send their children to the dominant language school for a better future but, at the cost of their cultural traditions, values and language. The implication unfortunately in such a situation is that the parents have to sacrifice their own language and cultural traditions, in order to give their children greater social and economic advantage. Also the breaking up of communities by outside groups and official sanctions against the use of cultural or minority languages in local authorities, schools and media; are also endangering many languages and cultures around the world. Moreover, Modern cultures and languages support new technologies in today's globalized world, and are encroaching the people who were once isolated. This is creating drastic effects on their environment and their way of life. The spread of individualism, consumerism, and the pressures of assimilation into dominant cultures and other Western values are forcing people to learn dominant languages which is a direct threat to endangered languages of minority cultures and communities. Conclusion The death of a language means the death of a culture; and its traditions. Thus, languages are a living heritage which we must protect and cherish. The languages of minority community can be eroded in an effort to encourage their children to adopt the language and customs set by the majority cultures. This endangerment and ultimately the death of languages have also resulted form changing environments, or the speakers having become victims to predators or more successful competitors. The pace of language extinction has drastically accelerated today and by contrast it is proceeding generically and globally. We seem to have entered a period of mass extinction which is a great threat to diversity in our natural ecology and also in what can be called our cultural ecology. But leaving aside the pros and cons that affected the populations get from language shift, what needs to be addressed is what realistic steps can be taken at the global level to preserve the ancestral languages. The rising economic pressures are raising concerns about the survival of many endangered languages and thus, resulting in the loss of their identity and culture. REFERENCE Gibbs, W. Wayt. Saving Dying Languages. Scientific American Magazine. (2002). UNESCO. Index Translationum. (2002). Available: http//www.unesco.org/culture/xtras. Accessed: 10 April. 2007. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Killer Languages. (31 January, 2007). Accessed: 10 April, 2007. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brenzinger, M. Language Death: Factual and Theoretical Explorations With Special Reference to East Africa. (Ed). Berlin: Mount de Gruyter. (1992). Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2000). Hoeningswald, M. Henry. Language Obsolescence and Language History: Matters of Linearity, Leveling, Loss and the Like. In: Nancy C. Dorian, Ed. Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1998). pp.347-354. Mufwene, S. Salikoko. Colonization, Globalization and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-first Century. Journal of Multicultural Societies. Vol. 4, No. 2. (2002). pp. 1 - 48. Nelson, Daniel. Last Word Looms for Half the World's Languages. Global Policy Forum. (2002). Sasse, H. J.Theory of Language Death, In Brenzinger, M. (Ed). Language Death: Factual and Theoretical Explanations with Special Reference to East Africa. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (1992). pp. 7-10. Schmidt, A. The Loss of Australia's Aboriginal Language Heritage. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. (1990). Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. Linguistic Genocide in Education - or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights Mahwah, New Jersery: Lawrence Erlbaum. (2002). --------------------------------------------- Read More