Perspective of Scientific Management - Essay Example

Scientific management principles were developed during the early 20th century and continue to be utilized in 21st century management practices, although they have also been modified to suit socio-environmental changes. The principles of systematic quality control and operations research of Taylorism, have manifested into management cybernetics, total quality management and "lean manufacturing" in the post-modern globalized business era. This paper will review the feasibility of the classical perspective of systematic management in today's management climate. Firstly, a brief review of Taylorism and Fordism will be provided. Secondly, the extension of the principles with regard to total quality management and lean manufacturing will be discussed. Finally, a conclusion shall synthesize the main points of the paper and demonstrate the continued use and viability of systematic management in post-modern management practices. The History of Scientific Management Taylorism is a method of management which was formulated by Fredrick Winslow Taylor in 1911, as in the title of his monograph The Principles of Scientific Management, which aimed to enhance labor productivity and manufacturing efficiency (Zahir, Themistocleous, & Love, 2003). Taylor's background as an industrial engineer in the USA later earned him the title of the "Father of Scientific Management" (Schroeder, 2003). He analyzed worker's behaviors across industries he was involved in and determined that "One Best Way" could achieve a higher rate of production that was standardized and so cut costs to the company. He also develop a time and motion study wherein he broke down each job in a manufacturing process into its component elements and measured the duration of each component to a hundredth of a minute. This reduced the number of movements or actions that a worker needed to make in order to perform each component of the overall job. Each component could then be standardized across all workers performing that job, reducing "wasted" action and increasing productivity and subsequently company profits. It was also found that the reduction in the number of actions needed to perform a total job would dramatically reduce worker fatigue (Schroeder, 2003). Taylor is noted for his study into the use of shovels, he observed that workers used the same type of shovel for a range of materials. Through systematic evaluation Taylor determined that 211/2 lb was an ideal load for a shovel, and then located or designed a variety of shovels for each type of material that could scoop that amount. Ultimately, Taylor sought to portray industrial management as an academic discipline, so that evidence-based research could be used to make informed decisions about the most effective and efficient way of maintaining a cooperative and innovate workforce that could achieve maximum productivity at minimal costs. In summary, Taylor's theory of scientific management consisted of four distinct principles: 1. Instead of the "rule-of-thumb" of traditional work methods, tasks should be grounded in the scientific study of each task and its component parts. 2. Use systematic and standard methods to recruit, select, train, evaluate and develop each employee instead of workers continuing to train them in a passive and non-standardized manner. 3. Collaborate with workers so that systematic and standardized methods of completing a task are followed. 4. Delegate work amongst managers and workers in an equal manner to ensure that managers implement scientific management principles when planning work, and to ensure that workers actually follow-through on task procedures. In this way, Taylor approached management of work tasks as a scientific problem. After Taylor, the rapid progress of technological development paved the way for advances in statistical analyses of scientific problems. This progress led to the improvement of Taylor's systematic principles to provide more stringent quality control during the 1920s and 1930s (Miner, 2002). Quality control initiated the creation of systems to make sure that products and/or services are designed and manufactured or delivered to meet the needs and expectations of customers. In ideal cases, products and services would in fact exceed these needs and expectations. Later, during the 1940s and 1950s scientific management principles developed into "operations research" and management cybernetics. Operations research (OR) is an inter-disciplinary profession and science which draws on the same systematic and standardized methods of Taylorism except incorporating more advanced statistical tests to provide mathematical models and algorithms to guide decision making of complex real-world dilemmas. Operations research sought to enhance collaboration, integration, cooperation and coordination of all operations within an organization. The aim of operations research is to create the best possible solution to a problem within any type of organization using the scientific method. In such a way performance of the organization would be improved and subsequently customer satisfaction and increased profits for the company. Taylor was criticized for introducing principles that could only be applied to the manufacturing industry; however he himself was quick to point out that his scientific management principles could be used for all organizations, including government and universities (Miner, 2002). For example, he loved sports and modified tennis requests and golf clubs to improve their performance, although they did not become popular designs. Also, his work was criticized for ignoring two inherent issues: 1) scientific management devalues individual differences as the most efficient way to work for one person may not suit another; and 2) the principles ignore the fact that the economic interests of staff and management differ dramatically in general, and so the measurement and retraining that Taylor advocated would likely be resented by the workforce, and potentially sabotaged. However, Taylor advocated that scientific management needed the workers to benefit. Further, that work should provide them with the ability to produce more and so be paid more, and that this could be achieved by teaching and implementing more effective ways for producing a product or delivering a service. A contemporary of Taylor was Henry Ford, also in the USA, who developed an economic philosophy that advocated prosperity and high corporate profits by way of high wages that would encourage workers to purchase the very products that they were producing; for example cars, leisure equipment, household items and clothes (Miner, 2002). Ford improved methods of mass production and initiated the assembly line to improve production, in this way he was able to produce and sell a large number of inexpensive cars and became one of the richest men in North America. The assembly line was a manufacturing process in which the interchangeable parts can be added to a product in a sequential way so as to create a standardized finished product. Ford built factories that reflected the concept of the assembly line. In general, four workers were needed to control a specific task, their work actions being reduced to the absolute minimum. "Fordism" was an element of the Efficiency Movement, a way of thought in North America sought to progress the nation following the Great Depression. Workers were in general unskilled, but as employees they were in the position to be able to purchase the products that they made. The 1980s and Onwards During the 1980s the industrialized world took scientific management to new levels, developing "total quality management" practices that remain in today's business climate, although they have been modified to suit contemporary socio-environmental conditions (Powell, 1995). Quality management became a critical research area corporate discourse. The topic began its development as an integral facet of business culture, on par with financial reports, as its sustainable competitive benefits became well recognized. Quality management was defined as a set of principles based on scientific management that were utilized by management executives to develop infrastructure that guided corporations in continual improvement and performance (Schlickman, 2003). Company's showed their commitment to total quality management principles in their descriptions of core competencies and values; their commitment to the best technology, staff and services; the focus on the customer (i.e., people mattered); their desire to form long-term relationships with stakeholders; the increased awareness for transparency and accountability of corporate practices; the embracing of innovation and treasury management; and having technology driving their business strategies. Today's business environment uses the principals as an extension of the combined knowledge, skills and competencies an international ISO Technical Committee which has formulated the ISO/TC, Quality management and quality assurance. However, quality management remains an under-researched concept in strategic resource management (Powell, 1995). The standards provided by the ISO 9000 (ISO) were developed from the ISO/TC document, and quality management criteria is now used in corporations across the globe which have been taken up by over 880, 000 corporations in over 161 nations (Tvdrik, 1997). As such, the ISO is a generic management system benchmark for quality management expectations in business due to; its customer-centered approach to their needs and requirements; its regulatory requirements; its orientation toward customer satisfaction; and commitment to continual improvement achieving these goals. Benefits of using the ISO are manifold. Firstly, its generic application has the advantage of; providing organizations of any size with standards that can be used across all products and services; being user-friendly for all business activity sectors; and allowing businesses, public administrations and government officials with a set of guidelines to guide decision making and organizational practices (Tvrdik, 1997). Additionally, a generic document means that regardless of the amount of activity a company may experience, when it considers quality management systems, it must be recognized that many critical elements must be included, and that these elements are available with the ISO. Secondly, the ISO is a comprehensive system that innervates an entire organization (Tvrdik, 1997). Empirical indicators that can be used to measure the 'health' of a company can be achieved with the ISO, as it can increase a company's access to international markets; maintain consistent and reliable processes; as well as ensure less idle time, and less waste of materials and staff efforts. Hence, the document improves market benefits for companies and reduces their costs. Finally, it appears that for small to medium organizations aiming to supplier larger corporations that they may in the future have to be ISO certified in order to maintain business relationships. In other words, the advantages are to continue current client relationships, and to be able to bid for new contracts. However, for those organizations who do not deal with larger organizations in this way, the salient benefits of using the ISO may be misunderstood. One study found that ISO 9000 provided 86% of respondents with improved management, control, and/or organizational planning, which provided staff with a consistent work environment, encouraged a company culture of collaboration, inclusiveness and continual improvement (Lloyd, 1992 as cited in Schlickman, 2003). Other benefits which have been cited include; enhanced team-spirit; consistency in work performance; instilled a confidence in the reliability and dependability of co-workers, increased employee satisfaction and decreased perceptions of stress; an d improved employee moral and training programs (Saarelainen, 1997 as cited in Schlickman, 2003). During the 1990s management leadership more fully involved scientific management principles, the manager was seen as having to understand the market, seeking to improve products, whist trying to increase revenue, and acting to motivate employees by transforming organizational culture into one that fully engaged the employee and acknowledged their value and need for cooperation. As a leader the manager began to ask themselves: What do the customers want How do I ask them the right questions (Bolcer, & Taylor, 1996). To overcome unsuccessful outcomes it was seen as critical to have a strategy for direction and to monitor progress of company processes towards the goal. Self-evaluation became important, being undertaken is a systematic and scientific way to guide management decisions in their leadership role. A leader must "know thyself", that is, their values, their strengths and their weaknesses. In order to achieve this level of self-awareness it was apparent that a leader must systematically reflect on their decisions and actions in regards to the outcomes (Drucker, 1999). Reflective processes allowed the leader to continuously develop them as a leader. This is a type of feedback analysis (cybernetics) was achieved by leaders asking; Am I a reader or a listener How is it that I learn Am I a loner or do I work better with others In what situations do I work alone/with a team What are my personal values in regard to work Do my values align with those of the organization What should I contribute Where do I belong within the organization Leaders began to take on the responsibility for the relationships that they formed, and for the communication that maintained and developed these relationships with staff and employees. In today's business climate, systematic reflection has became the key factor in a manager's ability to be an inspirational leader. Self-knowledge is considered to cultivate effective communication, allowing the manager to engage others and to motivate them. It is seen essential that the manager not hide weaknesses all the time, so as to show that they are approachable and human (Gofee and Jones, 2000). Judging when to show weakness requires a leader to follow their intuition. The process of reflection, or soft data collection and analysis, aids in knowing when to act; when to practice tough empathy, and how to care for the realities of others. As such, scientific management principles are actively drawn upon although not for the purpose that Taylor originally intended. A leader/manager was seen as someone who should be proud of what makes them different from others as it demonstrates their uniqueness. And that they should continually ask themselves: Why would someone want to follow me Lean manufacturing was also developed during the 1990s by managers like Shigeo Shingo; this discipline also drew strongly on scientific management principles (Neely, Gregory, & Platts, 2005). Ultimately, Japanese management culture fully embraced the principles of scientific management to rapidly advance their economic situation following WWII. Lean management sought to reduce wastes to improve customer satisfaction. The seven recognized areas of waste production (muda) were: transport, inventory, motion, waiting time, over-production, processing time and defective products (Mowday & Sutton, 1993). As quality improves costs are also reduced and staff satisfaction increases too. The "tools" of lean manufacturing include continual process analysis (kaizen), "pull" production, or "Just in Time" production (JIT; kaban), as well as mistake-proofing (poka-yoke). In today's business world many Japanese management principles are used among multi-national corporations to integrate and synchronize employees across nations as well as globally (Shook, Ketchen, Cycyota, & Crockett, 2003; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997). An example is ToyotaTM, which gives each employee a questionnaire for self-evaluation and management feeds back their interpretations, often, the employee might have a different target set as compared to management in terms of performance (Toyota Industries, 2004). Strengths are recognized, and the employee is mentored to work on their weaknesses so as to improve performance. Continuous improvement is always the goal for a company, and in terms of people it is recommended to train and re-train, rather than transfer or re-trench. It is an approach to performance where management defines the desired behaviors, and then management determines the degree to which an employee demonstrates these effective behaviors. Another example is Ford that provides in-house teachers to provide "teachable points of view" (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997). The teachers use story-telling, training programs, reports and emails to transmit their knowledge to other employees. Employees think as a shareholder would, enabling swift change and /or anticipation of consumer needs. The employees are encouraged to think and act as if they owned the company. The teachers encourage ideas about what it is that employees consider makes a company profitable; the development of personal and workplace values to set business goals; guide the utilization of emotional energy which, enabling employees to motivate each other; cultivate an 'edge' to employee competencies in the development of unique thought processes, and knowing when to act and to take risks. Overall, the teachers as leaders make their implicit knowledge, explicit. Further, scientific management principles in 21st century businesses draw on concepts of behavioral management, such as organizational behavior modification (OBM). This process is a tool that can be used by managers to systematically implement the concepts of operant behavior. Studies show that employee productivity, attendance and punctuality can be improved through the knowledgeable use of OBM (Rogelberg, 2002). Although, arguments have been put forth that consider OBM to be "over-control" of staff by management (Stead, 2003). Recent literature indicates that there are many costs to a firm when deviant work behaviors exist. It is acknowledged that management is required to establish rules, policies and protocols that ensure standardized work performance and customer service or product production (Stroh, Northcraft, & Neal, 2001). However, it is becoming increasingly clear that managers who are too rigid or authoritarian can unknowingly contribute to the deviant behaviors of employees. Using behavioral management theory a manager can determine if they are reinforcement for deviant behaviors. In turn, this would foster a more harmonious work environment, as management would be taking more time to get to know and understand their staffs. A workplace that cultivates management into the role of behavioral coordinator is likely to provide a more consistent service, and employee satisfaction is likely to be high. Both of which contribute to sustainable business practices. Conclusion Scientific management was initiated by Taylor in the early 20th century. The principles of continuous improvement, systematic data collection and analyses, recruitment and training processes, and standardized production or service delivery have led to 21st century management strategies of total quality management and lean manufacturing. Scientific management as espoused by Taylor emphasized the interdependence of workers and management to meet company and personal goals. Importantly this concept has been continued into today's management environment as post-modern management strategies seek to use evidence-based data to inform their business strategies and to maintain a healthy and happy workforce. References Bolcer, G. A., & Taylor, R. N. (1996). Endeavors:A process system integration infrastructure. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the Software Process (ICSP '96). Drucker, P. F. (1999). Managing oneself. Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 63-74. Goffee, R., & Jones, G. (2000). Why should anyone be led by you Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 60-70. Miner, J. B. (2002). Organizational Behavior: Foundation, Theories and Analyses. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mowday, R. T., & Sutton, R. I. (1993). Organizational behavior: Linking individuals and groups to organizational contexts. 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