Anti-Poverty Practice as an Essential Constituent of Any Scheme of Social Work - Essay Example

Order 144679 Anti-poverty practice Introduction The aim of this paper is to analyse anti-poverty practice as an essential constituent of any scheme of social work. The object of social work is to advance the well-being of individuals and communities by developing people's capacities to act on their own behalf, changing material conditions and institutional norms, and mediating between people and their environments. In carrying out these objectives, social workers are influenced by views and practices upheld within the greater society as well as particular to their workplace, profession, school, and background. To act in an ethical and effective manner, social workers need to identify the assumptions underlying these views and practices and to gauge their consequences in diverse groups and settings. Theory of social work A 'theory of social work' would aim at developing the participant's ability to build a foundation about human social functioning from which they can continue to analyse and integrate theories from many sources that emphasise social, biological, psychological, and cultural factors in human life.( Dominelli, L, 2004). The theoretical apparatus for social work may include applying theories to understand and explain persons in their environment; identifying, appreciating, criticizing, and comparing social paradigms, particularly with regard to the manner in which they sustain and constrain theories on development and interaction; integrating theories for advancing social work practice and policy; assessing the social effects of different theories, transferring learning across various settings, and forming a unified framework for social work; evaluating the influence of social paradigms on oneself as a social worker; and by identifying world views that affect one's beliefs, actions, and interactions and reflecting on their consequences for social work with different mandates, groups, and settings. 'Mission' of social work Social work is generally considered as being 'dedicated' to enhancing human life locally, nationally and globally by that builds on client system strengths and empowerment abilities. The practice is geared to rural and indigenous populations and is focused on improving social and economic justice with at-risk populations. Social workers must be able to promote efforts to develop and improve human services in a variety of settings; to enhance practitioners' ability to work with diverse clients; to promote active efforts to address poverty, structural racism, and oppression; and to contribute to the development of knowledge and scholarly work reflecting rural knowledge and practice that flows from local to international contexts. Social work practice is a process intended to assist people in need or to respond to human needs. The 'mission' of a social worker may be expressed as the following goals: to practice as generalist social workers with knowledge, values, and skills for working with diverse client systems of various sizes in rural settings; to understand and work effectively with diverse populations, especially those indigenous to the area in which he/she works; to promote continued professional development and enhancement of knowledge, values, and skills for generalist social work practice; and to provide service to the community and promote social and economic justice. (Wood and Tully, 2006) Social work and poverty The social work profession's roots are entwined with poverty from the time of the Elizabethan Poor Laws in England which are usually cited as the first attempts at the policy of poverty management, to the present-day's "welfare reform" measures. Although the term "poverty" can be applied to relative depletion of any resource--of the spirit, of health, of attitude-- the term usually refers to economic poverty. Social workers' efforts with respect to those who are poor and the circumstances that produce poverty have been to mitigate the impact of poverty on people as well as to develop policies that prevent poverty. Their concern with poverty is linked to the profession's ethical norm of justice. As such, special attention is given to those who are not only poor, but are members of groups that often are excluded from pathways to self-sufficiency, such as women, children, and the mentally ill (NASW). In some developing countries such groups also include certain castes and tribes as in India, and certain 'ethnic' groups as in African countries. Poverty for these groups means not merely being economically excluded from the enjoyment of what have become "conventional necessities" for the affluent, but being deprived of from having the bare necessities of human existence. "Much about poverty is obvious enough" wrote Amartya Sen, 'one of the world's best-known economists', and a Nobel laureate in his 1982 classic, "Poverty and Famines". "One does not need elaborate criteria, cunning measurement, or probing analysis to recognise raw poverty and to understand its antecedents."(Sen 1968) The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US$ (PPP) 1 per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 a day. It has been estimated that in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day. The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty has fallen from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001. Much of the improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. In Sub-Saharan Africa GDP/capita shrank with 14 percent and extreme poverty increased from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001. Other regions have seen little or no change. In the early 1990s the transition economies of Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income. Poverty rates rose to 6 percent at the end of the decade before beginning to recede. (Wikipedia/poverty). Social workers' encounter with poverty across the globe has been at different levels. At one level it has been with mass hunger, squalor and disease as in some countries of Africa; at another level it has been in assisting the state efforts to eradicate the remnants of great racial discrimination which had concealed millions in the abyss of hunger and disease of apartheid as in South Africa; at a third level it has been at a "Nelson's-eye" posture, if not an active state-assisted position at the fate of ethnic and racial minority 'citizens' of a country, who, as a consequence are pushed down to the level of 'second-class citizens', and into the realm of poverty, unemployment, deprivation, mental-torture and human-rights denial as in UK. At another level, it has been to fight poverty and its associated inhuman practices embedded in the caste-system of India. At these different levels of fighting poverty, both of the body and of the mind, social works have devised appropriate attitudes and practices to suit the diverse situations. Much has been said about the poverty and hunger, and the squalor and disease of the 'poor' of the African continent and of the South Asia region, and much more can be said about them. And so too, there is something of a plethora of literature about poverty in UK, about some aspects of which we give a short fleeting account below. Poverty in UK Africa or South Asia does not have a 'monopoly' of poverty, neither is poverty respectful of the 'affluence' of a country in general. Poverty is found among the rich nations too. In the UK too there is poverty and there are many who are poor. However, poverty is defined in UK in relative terms, not whether one is a destitute, but whether one can afford to buy a washing machine, or a cooker, whether they can clothe and feed their children. Technically, a household is defined as being in poverty if its income is less than 60% of the contemporary Great Britain median household income. In 2004-05, this was worth 100 per week for a single adult with no dependent children, 183 per week for a couple with no dependent children, 186 for lone parent with two dependent children and 268 per week for a couple with two dependent children. These sums are measured after deducting income tax, council tax and housing costs (including rents, mortgage interest, buildings insurance and water charges). The money left over is therefore what the household has available to spend on everything else it needs, from food and heating to travel and entertainment. Compared to developing countries and in terms of the World Bank definition, no-one in UK is poor, but in relation to the average wage many are in poverty and thus marginalised. But UK has a 'welfare system' and so no one is left to 'starve; and they do not blame the individual for their financial state. But there are 'pockets' and 'sections' of poverty in UK. (a) Poverty in Northern Ireland Of the many 'pockets' of poverty in UK, Northern Ireland is one. More than one quarter of Northern Ireland households live in poverty, according to a report by university researchers. The report, entitled Bare Necessities, published in October 2003 by think tank Democratic Dialogue found that more than one third of all children in the province live below the poverty line. The findings suggest that poverty in Northern Ireland is worse than either the Republic of Ireland or Great Britain, which are two of the most unequal societies in Europe. The research found that all sections of the community agree on what the bare necessities of life are. Poor households were found to be those with incomes about half the average and lacking three or more necessities. The authors conclude that "Northern Ireland is one of the most unequal societies in the developed world" and they throw up a challenge to the region's politicians and policy-makers. "While the divisions around religion, national identity and political preference dominate all discussions in the media, in local council chambers and in the assembly, this study has turned the spotlight to other equally important but less visible divisions of class, gender, age and disability."(BBC News/N Ireland, 2003) (b) 'Institutional Racism' in UK "The United Kingdom has a long history as a multi-national and a multi-cultural state" says Dr Claire Annesley of School of Social Sciences at the University of Manchester (Annesley 2004). But in the 1990s the issues of racism and racial discrimination moved into the political mainstream. Much concern was expressed both about poverty and unemployment among ethnic minorities and about the ways these groups were treated by public service institutions such as the criminal justice and the police. The Macpherson Inquiry, which enquired into the police apathy concerning the murder of a black man, Stephen Lawrence in April 1993, reported evidence of significant 'institutional racism' in the police force. Institutional racism was defined as: "The collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviours which amount to discrimination though unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people." (Macpherson, 1999, para 6.43, cited in Mason, 2000). In the 1990s the treatment of non-White citizens was an issue of concern. In 1999 the National Asylum Support Service (NASS), was set up to administer claims for social support from destitute asylum seekers. A discriminatory aspect was that asylum seekers were allowed just only ten pounds per week in cash benefits and the rest of their weekly benefit was provided in the form of food vouchers which could be exchanged at designated stores. (Annesley 2004) (c) Ethnic poverty in UK According to a report of the Child Poverty Action Group, more children from ethnic minorities are living in poverty in Britain than white children. About a third of all children in Britain are living in poverty, but for Bangladeshi and Pakistani children the figure is 73%. The report found 63% of black African children and 40% of Caribbean children live in poverty - where family income is less than 60% of the national average. Among the Bangladeshi adults the employment rates were 35%, compared to 75% in the population as a whole Economic activity rates among Pakistani women were half those for women overall. The group concluded that while "the causes of poverty are complex, there is strong evidence that discrimination and racism towards ethnic minorities continues to contribute to the risk of living in poverty". Discrimination creates unequal opportunities and unequal outcomes. Pensions minister Oliver Heald said that one of the reasons for the inequality was that people from minority ethnic groups faced particular hurdles when claiming benefits. (BBC NEWS/UK/Ethnic minorities...) The Community Foundation, in its information pack 'About London', says that poverty in London is getting worse with growing numbers now receiving 'income support' and with a growing polarisation of incomes since the 1980s.This poverty has racial overtones to it, with the Community Foundation pointing out that one in three Black and minority ethnic households is on a low income, compared with only one in six White households. (Community Foundation, 'About London') The mayor's report on poverty in London also points out that poverty is highest among ethnic minority groups, with 73 percent of Pakistani and Bangladeshi children in inner London and 55 percent of black children living in poverty after housing costs. (The Guardian) It may not be 'outrageous of the truth' when it is said that the sad plight of the ethnic minorities in UK is engendered by the 'Enoch-Powell-rivers-of-blood' attitude of a vast number of the Whites. A representative view of that attitude is found in a study entitled Third World Immigration: Importing Poverty, Not Prosperity: The UK Case Study, (Appendix 7).That document claims that "Third World immigration into the UK imports poverty, boosts social delinquency and crime, and costs British taxpayers a fortune - precisely the opposite of what liberals allege are the benefits of such open-door immigration policies". It is apprehensive, on the basis of a report in The Observer of 3 September, 2000, that "not only does the capital (London) contain more than half of the total number of the UK's ethnic minorities, but demographic studies have shown, that, given current immigration and natural reproduction rates, Whites will be a minority in London by 2010".(The Observer). This cannot, however, be an excuse for denial of basic human rights to the ethnic minority 'citizens' of the country. Without employment (work) they have no income and without income they live in poverty, the 'official' dole, even if given, being inadequate for a 'decent' living. (d) Family and Child poverty in the UK Studies have shown that in spite of a fall in the number of families with children and declining family size, the number of children living in households with below half average income has risen rapidly over recent decades. In 1995-96 about one-third of all children - 4.3 million - were living in such households, compared with just 1.3 million in 1968. The rise in child poverty is closely linked to a growth in the number of children living in families without work. Between 1968 and 1995-96, the proportion of all children with no working parent rose from 2 to 10 per cent of those in two-parent families, and from 30 to 58 per cent of children of lone parents. Workless families accounted for over half (54 per cent) of all poor children in the mid-1990s, compared with under a third (31 per cent) in the late 1960s. Over the same period, the proportion of poor children who lived in lone-parent families rose from 19 per cent to 43 per cent So one might ask as to what was the relative importance of growing family 'worklessness', compared with the growth in lone parenthood, over this period. One-fifth of the overall increase in child poverty can be attributed specifically to the rise in the proportion of children with lone parents, from 6 per cent to 22 per cent of all children. But a bigger factor has been the rising chance of either one- or two-parent families being out of work. This has been compounded by a growing incidence of poverty within all categories of households defined by working and parental status. (Gregg. P, 1998) Child poverty in the UK remains higher in relative terms than in all except three of the 24 other EU countries, with 2 -3 million below the poverty line. Children on low incomes are unable to have the basic living standards that their peers take for granted. Some lack even the bare necessities like food and warm clothing, and certain groups - including homeless children and children of refugees - are particularly vulnerable to much severe hardship. Moreover, most children in poverty experience it as a persistent rather than a temporary condition: over two-thirds of those below the poverty threshold at any one time have been in poverty for at least three of the past four years. Since the late 1990s, child poverty has been decreasing, thanks to rising parental employment and increases in tax credits and benefits paid to low-income families with children. However, some researchers warn that present policies are unlikely to produce substantial further reductions in child poverty. They say that the Government could meet its target of halving child poverty between 1998 and 2010 by spending an estimated 4 billion a year (0.3 per cent of GDP) more than currently planned on benefits and tax credits. Getting the second half of children out of poverty between 2010 and 2020 will be far harder. If tax credits and benefits are the primary instruments to achieve this, an additional 28 billion (1.6 per cent of GDP) need to be added to the planned annual spending on these. Analysts are of the view that to make further inroads into child poverty, the Government must extend its policy of increasing redistribution to low-income families. In addition, this will require parents to have improved pay and opportunities. Long-term policies include better education and training for disadvantaged groups, improved childcare and the promotion of equal pay for women.( Joseph Rowntree Foundation 2006: Child Poverty) On 11 December 2006, the UK Conservative Party's Social Justice Policy Group (SJPG) published an interim report (Breakdown Britain) which offers a comprehensive survey of poverty in the UK by six SJPG policy sub-groups, which cover family breakdown, educational failure, drug and alcohol addiction, consumer indebtedness, economic dependency and the voluntary sector. (Breakdown Britain) Oxfam in UK A prominent social service organization which is engaged in fighting poverty world-wide is Oxfam. "Oxfam International is a confederation of 13 independent, non-profit, secular, community-based aid and development organizations who work with local partners in over 100 countries worldwide to reduce poverty, suffering, and injustice. It is a member of the One World Network, which seeks to "promote sustainable development, social justice, and human rights"(Wikipedia/Oxfam). Much of Oxfam's anti-poverty work around the world is based on helping people and communities to achieve 'sustainable livelihoods', implying a means of living which can maintain itself over time, and which can cope with and recover from shocks. Oxfam's UK Poverty Programme (UKPP) has been applying this experience to their work in the UK. Insecurity is all pervading for the poor in the UK which Oxfam sees as inimical to achieving sustainable livelihoods; for example, their lack of access to affordable credit. Oxfam says that by successive pieces of legislation, UK has eroded the rights and cut the benefits of asylum seekers so that many of them live in destitution, detained indefinitely without explanation. Oxfam works with refugees and asylum seekers in the UK to help them challenge and change public, government and media attitudes. At the same time they are trying to change government policies on asylum at UK and EU levels. It is of the view that to tackle the root causes of poverty effectively, local people must be involved in making and implementing the decisions which affect their lives. They experience poverty first hand, and have the best idea of what they need to overcome their problems. And in UK, through its efforts, Oxfam has enabled communities and local authorities to speak out and gain confidence that they can change things. Oxfam's UKPP has recognised the distinct gender-specific needs of men and women, for two reasons; firstly, women tend to bear the brunt of poverty, so it is a question of fairness, and secondly, being aware of the distinct needs of men and women, Oxfam feels it can address poverty in both sexes more effectively. The UKPP has a 'race equality' programme as part of tackling discrimination in a broader sense (Listen Hear, 2000). In conclusion it is to be said that Oxfam, by its efforts and experience in working out and implementing anti-poverty programmes world-wide exemplifies the role and importance of social work as an integral component of the universe of a welfare society. Social work, collectively and individually, has been instrumental in helping many of those on low incomes who, owing to the disempowering nature of the poverty, social exclusion and discrimination they face, struggle to fulfil their responsibilities as a human being, as a parent, and as a citizen. _____________________________________________ References Alice O'Connor, 2001, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History, Princeton University Press, 2001, Annesley, C. (2001) 'New Labour and Welfare' in S. Ludlam & M. Smith: New Labour in Government. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Annesley, Claire, 2004: BBC News/Programmes/BBC Parliament/ Race and Ethnicity, at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/2563115.stm/ Appendix 7: of Third World Immigration: Importing Poverty, Not Prosperity: The UK Case Study, at http://www.white-history.com/poverty.htm/ retrieved Dec.20, 2006. 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The Guardian, '53% of inner London children 'live in poverty', November 19, 2002, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,843007,00.html The Observer 'UK whites will be minority by 2100' September 3, 2000, http://www.observer.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,363750,00.html. Vandmoortele, 2005, Ambition is Golden Meeting the MDGs: Development journal 48(1), Jan 2005 Wikipedia: article on Oxfam, Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfam, December 14, 2006 Wikipedia: article on Poverty at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/poverty Wood, Gale Goldberg and Carol T. Tully, 2006, The Structural Approach to Direct Practice in Social Work: A Social Constructionist Perspective, (3rd edition), Columbia University Press, September, 2006 Read More