Domestic Violence and Developmental Psychology - Essay Example

Domestic Violence and Developmental Psychology Psychology can be applied from two perspective axis. The vertical axis can be behavioral psychology, psicoanalysis, humanist psychology, or transpersonal psychology (spiritual psychology). The horizontal axis is developmental psychology since it deals with the different stages of a lifespan of anybody. It is like a poem, which is vertical to time, and a short-story, which is horizontal to time. The same comparison can be made between psychology and literature. In this paper these perspectives will be taken into consideration, and they help to understand why there is a mixture of developmental psychology with humanistic psychology. The Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System of the London Family Court Clinic Inc has published several research studies about domestic violence that take into account the perspectives of developmental psychology as a working framework. Baker, Jaffe, Ashbourne, and Carter published "An Early Childhood Educator's Handbook" with the title of "Children Exponed to Domestic Violence". Cunningham and Baker published a comprehensive study entitled "What About Me Seeking to Understand a Child's View on Violence in the Family". These works are very helpful to deal with the issue of domestic violence from the point of view of developmental psychology since they take a humanistic psychology standpoint. It is important to note that humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950's as the "third force" in Psychology (Association for Humanistic Psychology, 2001; Van Wagner, 2008b). The "first force" was behavioral psychology, and the "second force" was psychoanalysis. Now the "fourth force" seems to be transpersonal psychology or spiritual psychology (Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003). But the research studies by the London Family Court Clinic Inc mentioned above take a humanistic psychology standpoint when they undertake their developmental psychology approach on domestic violence. Regarding the pioneering works of Abraham Maslow in the field of humanistic psychology, O'Hara states the following: "Maslow favored the term Eupsychology to signify its focus on health rather than pathology. Others wanted to call it Existential Analysis, to reflect the influence of European Existentialism. The name Humanistic Psychology was finally chosen to acknowledge indebtedness both to classical humanism of ancient Greece and to the great humanist scholars of the Renaissance. Humanistic psychology rejected the medical sickness model and embraced a growth and emancipation model of healing. These ideas were echoed in the radical psychiatry of R. D. Laing and the anti-psychiatry movements of David Cooper in the U.K., Thomas Szaz in the U.S.A., and Franco Basaglia in Italy." (2005, p. 2). In this sense, the point is to deal with psychology from the point of view of health, not of illness. On the other hand, developmental psychology is described in the following terms by Van Wagner: "Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development. () The scientific study of development is important not only to psychology, but also to sociology, education, and health care. Development does not just involve the biological and physical aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development throughout life." (2008a) (See also Hola.co.uk, 2006). The main issues of developmental psychology are enumerated as follows by Van Wagner: "Nature vs. Nurture () "Early Experience vs. Later Experience () "Continuity vs. Discontinuity () "Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences (2008a). On the issue of domestic violence, the following terms are explained by Baker, Jaffe, Ashbourne, and Carter: "Domestic violence refers to the abuse and/or assault of adolescents or adults by their intimate partners. It is used interchangeably with intimate partner abuse and inter-parental violence. Battering is often used to refer to domestic violence or frequent and severe abuse. () "Perpetrator refers to individuals who are violent toward their intimate partners. It is used interchangeably with offenders, offending parents, batterers, abusive partners, and abusers. () "Victim refers to individuals who are abused by their intimate partners. It is used interchangeably with survivor, victimized parent, abused partner, adult victim and battered partner. Many domestic violence advocates prefer the term 'survivor,' as it reflects the reality that many abused individuals cope and move on with personal strength and resourcefulness. () "Children exposed to domestic violence refers to children seeing, hearing or being aware of violence against one parent figure that is perpetrated by another parent figure. It is used interchangeably with children living with violence." (2002). These researchers address the fact that younger children are more likely to suffer from domestic violence, and they provide some insight into the prevention and intervention in order to mitigate the impact of the domestic violence as follows: "Young children are most likely to experience domestic violence - abusive behavior used by one intimate partner to control and dominate the other. The young child's need for predictability and consistency is threatened by domestic violence. Routines are likely interrupted, and the sounds and images are distressing. "- Children under age five are more likely to live in a household where domestic violence occurs than are children in any other age category. "- Children living with domestic violence are at risk for increased emotional and behavioral problems. "- Early identification of difficulties can lead to earlier and more effective support and intervention for children and their families. "- Early childhood programs can be a secure and nurturing place for vulnerable children. The caring adults who work in these programs can make a difference in the life of a child who is affected by violence." (Baker, Jaffe, Ashbourne, and Carter, 2002). From the developmental point of view, these researchers assert that domestic violence can have the following potential impacts at different ages: "Key Aspects of Development: "Infants and Toddlers "Take in information from the world around them through their senses. Form secure attachments. Become more active explorers of their world and learn through play. Learn about social interaction and relationships from what they hear and observe in their families. "Preschoolers "Learn how to express aggression and anger, as well as other emotions, in appropriate ways. Think in egocentric ways. Form ideas about gender roles based on social messages. Increased physical independence (dressing self, etc.). "School-aged Children (6 to 11 years) "Increased emotional awareness of self and others. Increased complexity in thinking about right and wrong; emphasis on fairness and intent. Academic and social success at school has primary impact on self-concept. Increased same sex identification." (Baker, Jaffe, Ashbourne, and Carter, 2002). At the same time, these researchers remark the following potential impact of domestic violence: "Loud noises and vivid visual images associated with violence can be distressing. "Parents may not be able to consistently respond to the infant's needs which may negatively affect the parent-child bond. "Fear and instability may inhibit exploration and play; imitating in play may be related to witnessed aggression. "Learn about aggression in observed interactions. "Learn unhealthy ways of expressing anger and aggression; possibly confused by conflicting messages (e.g., what I see vs. what I'm told). "May attribute violence to something they have done. "Learn gender roles associated with violence and victimization. "Instability may inhibit independence; may see regressive behaviors. "More awareness of own reactions to violence at home and of impact on others (e.g., concerns about mother's safety, father being charged). "Possibly more susceptable to adopting rationalizations heard to justify violence (e.g., alcohol causes violence; victim deserved abuse). "Ability to learn may be decreased due to impact of violence (e.g., distracted); may miss positive statements or selectively attend to negatives or evoke negative feedback. "May learn gender roles associated with intimate partner abuse (e.g., males as perpetrators - females as victims)." (Baker, Jaffe, Ashbourne, and Carter, 2002). On the other hand, Davis and Briggs (2000) point out the current collective awareness about the negative impact of domestic violence: "Society has become increasingly aware of the negative impact of child abuse on children's' behavioral, emotional, and social functioning. Research has shown that children do not have to be the direct targets of violence to be affected by it. Indeed, the research on negative outcomes associated with exposure to violence has grown exponentially. Children may be exposed to various types of violence including violence in the media (e.g., television or movies), in the school or in the community, and between adults at home." (Davis and Briggs, 2000). Kitzmann sums up her findings as follows: "Children exposed to domestic violence are at risk for a range of psychosocial problems, even when they themselves are not the target of physical aggression. These problems are similar to those seen in physically abused children, suggesting that violence anywhere in the family may disrupt child development. Although very young children are disproportionately exposed to domestic violence, little research has focused on the adjustment of children in this age group. There is some evidence to suggest that younger children are more at risk, presumably because of limited understanding of conflict and limited coping strategies. Few treatment programs have been tested in randomized trials. Research needs to include more precise measures of violence (e.g. distinguishing mild from severe aggression), multiple risk factors (e.g. controlling for the presence of parental alcohol abuse), and outcomes (e.g. identifying sub-clinical distress that may put the child at risk for later problems)." (Kitzmann, 2005). Regarding the treatment for victims of domestic violence in the context of developmental psychology, Kitzmann suggests the following: "Interventions should target both the direct effects of exposure to domestic violence (e.g. helping children learn to cope with the stressors associated with family violence) and the indirect effects via disruptions in parenting (e.g. helping parents provide consistent nurturance and discipline, despite disruptions caused by violence). A multi-systemic approach to treatment may be important to address the multiple social influences that increase or decrease risk among children exposed to domestic violence." (Kitzmann, 2005). In the comprehensive research study undergone by Cunningham and Baker (2004) there are many valuable findings, but one of the most important ones is related to the ecological fallacy. These researchers expressed their finding with the simple assertation that "a bad past doesn't mean a bad future". So there is hope for the victims when the problems are addressed from a "holistic" perspective as Cunningham and Baker assert (2004). And there is hope also because the issues of developmental psychology can be resolved from the standpoint of humanistic psychology. On his presidential message assuming his functions as president of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP), Ferguson (2001) entitled his message as "Path of the Bridger: AHP's Role in Co-Creating A "New Reality" For Human Togetherness and the Evolution of Consciousness". Ferguson stated his views as follows: "Humanistic Psychology and AHP represented a shift in Consciousness, away from a primary focus on "what's wrong with us as human beings" to a primary focus on "how and in what ways we can become our optimal selves as human beings." Over time, the primary focus of Humanistic Psychology and the various educational activities of AHP, and its strategic partners, helped to co-create a "climate of possibilities" for individuals, groups (e.g., racial, cultural, social) and kindred organizations to explore numerous paths for becoming more of "who we are" as human beings. "One of those paths is what I call the Path of the Bridger. It is a path that nurtures relational harmony and personal and collective growth through "being authentic" in relating to and with one another as human beings. It is also a path that looks for creative ways to bring people together for growth-filled, collaborative enterprises. Additionally, it is a path that is fueled by what I call Archetypal Energies. As I've mentioned in other writings, I use easily recognized terms to evoke a common sense of these Archetypal Energies (e.g., Love; Acceptance; Inclusion; Harmony). I have described Archetypal Energies as Higher Vibrational Energies that have their own transcendent value, purpose, quality, and "voice" unique to the individual and that operate deep within our psyches, at both individual and collective levels. We tend to experience them as "creative urges" to move us toward our highest good or optimal realities. The Path of the Bridger, in my view, is one of many paths that AHP has "mirrored" nationally and internationally over the years, "planting humanistic seeds" for a "New Reality" of human togetherness and the evolution of Consciousness. In a seemingly tumultuous world with many divisive voices, where fear and strife seem more prevalent than Love, Acceptance, Inclusion, and Harmony, it is important to have national and international entities, seeding the psychology of the times with healing ideas and "bridging approaches" that bring human beings together, individually and collectively." (Ferguson, 2001). So there is hope for the victims of domestic violence, especially when developmental psychology is assumed from a humanistic framework. The next level is transpersonal psychology or spiritual psychology as the new trend in contemporary Psychology (Institute of Transpersonal Pscychology, 2003). It is necessary to find systemic solution in order to help the family as a system, the parents and the children. So the focus has to deal with the concepts of developmental psychology on the children faced with domestic violence, but we also need to make some recommendations so the negative effects can be mitigated or reduced to its minimum expression. Even though at some point we have to touch the issue of spirituality. I am using spirituality in its broader sense. The main attribute of spirituality is love in the context that the term is being used. Love is the unifying link in all the developmental psychological process in any person. Loving relationships happen everyday, everytime, anywhere. Love is the main feature of developing as a healthy human being. Domestic violence is a brutal lack of love, and that experience could be devastating for any child in the long run. We have to address the challenges of domestic violence with an open mind trying to find systemic solutions. Now I am giving an account of my personal experience with the issue of domestic violence and love: When I was much younger I had a friend/neighbor whose father constantly beat his mother. At the time it was never spoken about and no one did anything There were four children in the family; one girl and three boys. The mother was a very sweet lady. When I was thirteen the oldest boy who was a few months older than I became my boyfriend. They lived a few houses away but he would come by my home after school and his mother would telephone my home for him to come home before his father came home from work. The thing about the beatings were serious; I didn't give it much thought. It just went on and everyone knew. At the time I didn't even know that police should have been involved - talk about ignorant. There just were no complaints. My teenage relationship with this guy only lasted a year or so. We both stayed in the neighborhood until late teens. My family migrated to the United States. I think he left around nineteen years old, on a visit to the States - that visit turned into a permanent one. He and I and many of our other friends from the old neighborhood (that migrated) were in touch. We hung out together, park, parties, each other homes. What was observed about my friend "D" was his short temper. He was always ready to jump off the handle for anything. I remember once playing baseball and the person pitching hit him with the ball and he ran over and punched the guy. Another time a bunch of us were piled in the car and I made a joke about him and he got really mad and cursed at me. Over the years there were many small incidences. Then it was December 31st , 1995. I got home from work and saw some of my friends and my sister looking all solemn sad. I thought that was odd as it was New Year's Eve. One of the guys, the oldest of the bunch, said he had something to tell me and that I needed to sit down. He proceeded to tell me that "D" had shot and killed his child's mother. "D" was found guilty of murder and is presently serving 25 years to life -not eligible for probation before 25 years. When/If he comes up for parole in 25 years, and he's granted freedom he will be deported home. He was living in America illegally. I chose this topic to see the psychological effect on children exposed to domestic violence. Even though "D" ended up in jail, there were such similarities with the other three. The youngest one is a pilot; never married but have a child. The second to last child was a homosexual that died of AIDS while "D" was in jail - they did allow him to attend the funeral in Queens. The oldest of the lot (the girl) married her high school sweetheart, had two children and from what I understand they are still happily married. I think that the power of love can heal any wounds so spirituality according to transpersonal psychology or spiritual psychology also addresses the need to believe in the Creator, in God, because God is Love (I John 4:8). References Association for Humanistic Psychology. (2001). Humanistic Psychology Overview. Harnish, J. (Web Site Producer) and Wochholz, B. (Content Developer and Reviewer). Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://ahpweb.org/aboutahp/whatis.html Baker, L, Jaffe, P.G, Ashbourne, L., and Carter, J. (2002). Children Exposed to Domestic Violence. An Early Childhood Educator's Handbook to Increase Understanding and Improve. The David and Lucile Packard Foundation. Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.lfcc.on.ca/ece-us.PDF Cunningham, A. (M.A. (Crim.), and Baker, L. (Ph.D C.Psych). (2004). What About Me Seeking to Understand a Child's View on Violence in the Family. Centre for Children & Families in the Justice System. London Family Court Clinic Inc. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.lfcc.on.ca/what_about_me.pdf Davis, J. (Ph.D), and Briggs, E. (Ph.D) (2000). Witnessing Violence Fact Sheet. National Violence Against Women Prevention Research Center. Medical University of South Carolina. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.musc.edu/vawprevention/research/witnessing.shtml Ferguson, C.U. (2001). President's Message. Path of the Bridger: AHP's Role in Co-Creating A "New Reality" For Human Togetherness and the Evolution of Consciousness. Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP). Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.ahpweb.org/articles/fergusen_message.html Holah.co.uk. (2006). Developmental Psychology. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.holah.karoo.net/developmental.htm Institute of Transpersonal Psychology. (2003). What is Transpersonal Psychology Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.itp.edu/about/tp.cfm Kitzmann, K.M. (PhD). (2005, May 16). Domestic Violence and Its Impact on the Social and Emotional Development of Young Children. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development. Prevention of Child Maltreatment (Abuse/Neglect). Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. University of Memphis, USA. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://www.excellence-earlychildhood.ca/documents/KitzmannANGxp.pdf O'Hara, M. (Ph.D.). (2005). Psychoterapy. Humanistic, Experiential and Relational Approaches. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://maureen.ohara.net/pubs/Alternative%20Med%20Encyclopedia.pdf Van Wagner, K. (2008b). Humanistic Psychology. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentecourse/a/dev_intro.htm Van Wagner, K. (2008b). Humanistic Psychology. Retrieved April 24, 2008, from http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/hist_humanistic.htm Read More