Long-Term Results of Enlightenment - Essay Example

[Supervisor Long-Term Results of Enlightenment Introduction Enlightenment was one of the most influential movements of the eighteenth century. The accomplishments of this revolution illustrated the capability of human beings to infiltrate some of the secrets of this universe. These innovations, which occurred during the Scientific Revolution, cleared the way for other philosophers who deal with the issues of humanity. They condemned monarchal establishments, created new churches, and suggested a wide range of modifications designed to eradicate abuses and to encourage individual autonomy. While the Enlightenment was a wide-ranging international movement, most of its leading contributors were French nationals. The Enlightenment thinkers, also known as philosophers, worked to cultivate new proposals about economics, government, and religion. Furthermore, they suggested new ideas for the enhancement of human beings and for the reformation of the society. The main themes of these philosophers were to improve humanity so that the church would no longer control education. These philosophers also wanted to separate the church from political activities. Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Roueseau, David Hume, and Denis Diderot were amongst the most famous philosophers of that time. These rising groups spread their beliefs to the public while philosophers though of new ideas. (Baker 28-34) Enlightenment and Great Awakening Most of the matters that resulted in the Great Awakening showed that the Americans misunderstood Christianity and its values. Hence, the South and the North shared a common evangelical vision. Other religious personalities such as Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians developed and grew. Although denomination lines remained intact, all of the religions had a common evangelical viewpoint. Not only did it affect religions but it resulted in a great emphasis on education too. George Whitefield founded schools that comprised of Presbyterian ministers. A superior feeling of responsibility for the Indians and the Slaves materialized from this revival. Whitefield was one of the few preachers of that time who preached to blacks. Hence, most blacks and whites had a common evangelical sight. (Samson 94-96) People began to consider religion differently. The Puritan theology emphasized what God had done for humanity. Afterwards, people started thinking what a person can do in answer to the gifts God had bestowed on him. Salvation is a man's responsibility, not God's responsibility. The Enlightenment had conceptual reasons but people did not want to confess before God Almighty as people of the Great Awakening did. Those who appreciated the Enlightenment honored human beings and their abilities. They also argued that they worshipped God more than others did. Therefore, such people cared more about what they can do for themselves. Developments in the UK, such as the scientific methods, the Glorious Revolution, and the growth of the parliamentary government transferred to the colonies too. This Enlightenment started in Europe and came to America sometime near the early 18th century. The reason for its arrival into America was the reaction of what had happened due to the Great Awakening. The primary difference between these two affairs was a greater emphasis on faith in the Awakening. The Enlightenment was more about the assessment of human reasoning and less about the belief behind this concept. Hence, this scientific age was more about moral values. Galileo Galilei played a vital role in the Enlightenment. He made significant observations to argue the Copernican theory that the earth rotates on its axis beneath the motionless sun. The Church opposed this theory and stated that the Bible clearly says that the sun moves through the sky. Hence, the Church denounced Galileo's observations and teachings. Afterwards, monarchs forced Galileo to hide his new observations about the sun and prevented him from spreading his teachings anymore. Therefore, a fight started between science and the Church. (Foster) During this period, those people who supported the Enlightenment were willing to test all postulations like a good scientist. These people were willing to challenge all of the traditional ideas to reach into the depth of things. If these scientists did not prove the truth in the initial stage, which religious minded people claimed, this was the best time to prove their point. However, they did not leave their religion. They gave everything a rational disbelief and thought that everything had some constraints. They realized that knowledge is an asset that always amplifies. They also came to believe that every subject (even religion) could change and nothing was absolute. They knew that information relied on evidence and reason. The Enlightenment not only brought with itself scientific changes but it brings political and economic changes too. Afterwards, people began to think that important issues do not continue in an analogous manner as they had continued centuries ago. New rules can be written, new governments can form, new laws can be implemented, and new businesses can start. People also came to believe that everything they achieved was the result of their individual hard work and determination. Religion still survived during all these happenings but its value weakened in the eyes of people and it was changed to fit this new attitude. (Spielvogel 441) Long-term result of Enlightenment The major and significant result of enlightenment is people started to change their mind about religion and following those people who are following devils wishes. To put light on it we will explain the importance and demerits of enlightenment below. The main Eastern religions create situation to a state of awareness of a diverse order called enlightenment. Its base lies in the spiritual understanding of harmony that has been conceptualized as Hindu Oneness or the Buddhist annulled. From this came the thought of the "enlightened one" who lives in this high place all the time, nearly all of the time, or as a minimum a considerably bigger amount of time than normal folk - having at the extremely least a little organize over access to that position. The customary beginning of enlightenment involves two main mechanisms: 1. Being at single with the world to the degree of having no self or boundaries around the ego. 2. A ladder of value in which the more unselfish one is, the superior, with the uppermost condition being entirety altruism. The approach an "enlightened" person is supposed to patent enlightenment is during being unselfish and further than any need for sense of self indulgence. So the icon of the enlightened one is of being completely philanthropic, categorically empathetic and loving, and with no stain of gluttony, envy, yearn, or competitiveness. Those who desire to be measured enlightened must show themselves as being "over it all" - further than all the foibles of self-image: beyond preference, beyond unconstructiveness, beyond dread and wish, etc. Such individuals paint a seductive image of a state they can assist others get to that is not merely everlasting but that can resolve all the ordinary evils of life. Creating a particular group called the "enlightened state" is itself a sign of an accretion state of mind, it becoming the final objective to get through accumulating value and partly enlightening experiences. Someday or lifetime, one lastly crosses the fence and arrives. Then one is a ideal sign of the godhead - a ideal master with nowhere besides to go. You work in the direction of the objective of enlightenment and once you obtain it, you have it. The way the perfect is constructed makes it stationary and fixed. The skill of unity feels timeless, but the idea of enlightenment turns an eternal instant into an "all the time" fixed individuality that continues over time. Paradoxically, the individuality of being enlightened attempts to come together in time what is experienced as eternal. Once one gives credibility to such individuality also in oneself or in another, this produce a dualistic, either/or structure: one is either enlightened or not enlightened - this or that. This is one more instance of how constructing two part categories and giving one superior value (it's better to be enlightened) creates a ladder of worth not only stuck between the two, but also inside the fewer valued (non-enlightened) group. Those viewed as not enlightened are measured improved to the level they imitate the pictures of enlightenment. This fundamentally amounts to measuring the degree of altruism. The ideology of Hume was a main factor in generating the new philosophical approach to the Age of Enlightenment. By realizing the unlimited boundaries of religion in this period, Hume played a key factor in bringing rationalist thought to philosophy. He believed that through observation and reflection based on "systematized human sense" it is possible to synthesize a completely human science. This slow process would allow the expansion of knowledge regarding the human nature and it would form a science, which will not be substandard in certainty, and will be outstanding in utility, to any other form of human understanding. Natural science is based on reasons and observations. Mind is responsible for redirecting the instinctual drives into organized goals and motives, which are later expressed by the individual. It is worthwhile examining Hume's argument because it contains criticism for his contemporary values; he goes in depth in his analysis of natural religion, which will make him so famous among the postmodernists later on. (Lyotard 38-41) During the middle Ages, women's roles remained strictly traditional (with very few exceptions). However, during late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries new opportunities for elite women emerged and among the superior members of society men were encouraged to give their wives literary education which in a few centuries enabled women to acquire a certain political influence in the European intellectual society. The evolution of women towards a more liberal social and political participation took place in the salons where most distinguished and powerful people like the philosophers, artists, and politicians came on a regular basis to discuss the new ideas of the Scientific Revolution and other important intellectual, social and political developments. Yet, scientific progress unfortunately brought about a certain confirmation of female inferiority due to numerous proofs of male physical, anatomical superiority which ratified their overall supremacy. Nevertheless, the first public and official steps of political engagement emerged with famous A Vindication of the Rights of Women, by Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), an English writer and political philosopher whose work has been of great significance to Western feminism. Her main contribution was the assertion that women should have the right to vote and hold political office. Mary Wollstonecraft disagreed with Rousseau's contradictions about equality and freely expressed her opinion in her work: "Rousseau declares that a woman should never for a moment feel herself independent, that she should be governed by fear to exercise her natural cunning, and made a coquettish slave in order to render her a more alluring object of desire, a sweeter companion to man, whenever he chose to relax himself... What nonsense! When will a great man arise with sufficient strength of mind to puff away the fumes which pride and sensuality have thus spread over the subject" (Mary Wollstonecraft, A indication of the Rights of Women, 1792) her treatise was published in 1792 which reveals significant progress in the freedom of expression. Here she publicly criticizes Rousseau, the genius philosophe of her time, and gets away with it and even engrains a solid base for future emergence and evolution of the feminist theory. Moreover, women's political position is depicted in many 18th and 19th century novels. For example, Dangerous Liaisons, by Laclos The novel of the eighteenth century portrays the Marquise de Merteuil as a powerful and manipulative figure. She represents the center of the plot; she controls not only the love affairs but also destinies of extremely important people from the peak of hierarchal social organization. Many other novels such as "Le Pere Goriot", by Balzac, depict the social and political activity of wealthy women. Most of the time they used the salons as the meeting points for serious discussions of current issues of that time. Balzac reflects the reality of that time through his characters he demonstrates that young men with a potential intellect inevitably need a woman's support and protection (a woman from the haute societe) in order to succeed. The real figure who gained her fame and respect was Mme de Geoffrin, a wife of a wealthy merchant who transformed her home, located in the rue St-Honore, into one of the most popular and "trendy" salons of the Enlightenment. Her standards were extremely high and "distinguished foreigners, including a future king of Sweden and a future king of Poland, competed to receive invitations." She was extremely welcomed everywhere in Europe and the French intellectuals were proud of this good looking and active women. (Rossi 485-87) Exploring the economic sphere of the enlightenment, we will discuss the economic implications. That guided Adam Smith to lay out an Enlightenment economic policy. A new school of economists developed. The Scottish philosopher, Adam Smith (1723-1790), introduced several major comprehensive and fundamental assumptions in the form of principles of economic behavior. He grounded them on belief acting accordingly to one's self-interest which involved competition; work in alliance with the advancement of general economic situation. (Enlightenment the Age of). He was realistic enough to declare that self-interest fits into the sphere of normality in economics; however, it is a justification of an aspect that can easily flip over to the realm of politics, which then becomes a controversial issue. Smith along with the Physiocrats advocated a major shift from mercantilism to agriculture. They perceived the exploitation of land as the most profitable project. Unavoidably, the disputable issue of private property is on its way to become the big issue owing to Rousseau's and others' claims already discussed. The Physiocrats proposed a number of principles in the name of natural laws, "a body of laws of specific principles held to be derived from nature and binding upon all human society even in the absence of positive laws. By proclaiming their assumptions to be a natural law and by applying them (since this period's condition was that in order for a hypothesis to become a theory or a law it had to be tested) the Physiocrats gained general support and acceptance. Crucial step towards the secularization dates from this period too and Smith claimed that a government should have tree major duties: it should protect society from invasion (army); defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police) and keep up certain public works, such as, roads and canals that private individuals could not afford. This is a more or less accurate depiction of the governmental functions today in the West. It is hard to deny the significance of Smith's contribution to modern economics as regards free trade, the importance of division of labor rather then gold and silver and yet this rethinking of economics leads to capitalism, exploitation and many disasters that lead to the present-day complexification of the world. People are unhappy with what they have they are unable to control their greed in spite of satisfying relatively easily their basic needs. This Smith's notion of self-interest and the progress of economics led us the age of rigid materialism and exaggerated consumption. In other words, Smith slightly ignores the social structures; he is only preoccupied with the theory of economic progress, elimination of restrictions on trade and therefore, augmentation of wealth and yet he omits the discussion of side effects that do arise because of this, such as dissatisfaction on a human level. Some of the postmodernists might make some accusations, however this arguments in not at all an accusation rather it is a personal analysis of the evolution, which resulted from a particular innovation or change. Now let us proceed to the present perspective of the eighteenth century by some of the postmodern thinkers. Richard Rorty, in what is left of the Enlightenment, proposes an interesting alternative in the postmodern view of the Enlightenment. He does consider himself a postmodernist thinker and yet refuses its partial connotation, emphasizing his disagreement and even confusion with its idea of political hopelessness. Alleging that the main goals of the Enlightenment consisted of the reorganization of society, he suggests, aimed at alteration and exclusion of "caste, class or cruelty" along with the foundation new human and social values that would create an alternative for the previous religious beliefs and values. This innovation in the eighteenth century mentality grounded on the concepts of nature and reason. Critically thinking, Rorty pays little attention to the negative outcomes that emerged due to the major reformation of political structures during that period. In my opinion, the emergence of repressive and, in some cases, destructive political systems such as colonization, fascism, communism, and, above all, the shift to the new form of power: the weapons of mass destruction, should be examined more carefully and taken more seriously due to its potential route towards the end of all life. On the other hand, it is even hard to speculate about an alternative situation if the political organization was to have shifted into a different direction. (Grewal 11-13) Conclusion Overall, having discussed numerous viewpoints of the most influential figures of the Enlightenment, would like to conclude with the present day situation. Commerce, capitalism, technology, and science are progressively replacing the cultural and spiritual aspects nowadays. The extreme shift of interest from idealistic and poetic literature into a more practical one illustrates human disappointment. Moreover, the dislodgment from cafes and salons to computers, from natural things to mechanical innovations, and from genuine needs to exaggerated desires shows a change in the thinking of the new generation. Furthermore, change is unavoidable and the greatest ability is the capability to adapt to these changes. Yet, there will surely be revolutionary individuals who will attempt and succeed in changing the social, economic, and political structures but only to a limited extent unless they use extreme and aggressive measures such as the usage of nuclear weapons for the accomplishment of their goals. One can speculate that since history repeats itself, at least some of these forecasts will help us avoid several disasters. (Gordon 117-24) Works Cited Baker, Keith. What's left of the Enlightenment 2001, California: Stanford UP, 28-34. Enlightenment the Age of http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm Accessed, April 28, 2007 Foster, Roger. Dialectic of Enlightenment as Genealogy Critique: 2001, http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detailvid=1&hid=113&sid=bc7f8397-5b68-4927-bef7-c070936357a3%40sessionmgr107 Accessed, April 28, 2007 Gordon, Daniel. Postmodernism and the Enlightenment: 2001 Great Britain: Routledge, 117-24. Grewal, Inderpal. An Introduction to Women's Studies: 2002, New York: Mc Grow-Hill Companies, Inc, 11-13. Lyotard, Jean- Francois. The Postmodern Explained: 1985, London: U of Minnesota, 38-41. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792 http://www.binghamton.edu/womhist/awrm/doc1.htm Accessed, April 28, 2007 Rossi, Philip J. Theological Studies: 2005, Vol. 66 Issue 2, p485-487, 3p. Spielvogel, J. Jackson. The Western Civilization: 2000, US: Wadsworth, 441. Samson, Jane. Canadian Journal of History: 2005, Vol. 40 Issue 1, p94-96, 3p. . Read More