Racist Skinhead Subculture - Essay Example

? Racist Skinhead Subculture Racist Skinhead Subculture Introduction Originating from England, the skinhead subculture reached the US in the late eighties and mainly involved a cultural expression of a wide array of music and dressing styles that gave them a sense of belonging. With time the skinhead movement broke up into right winged extremist who promote white supremacy and who follow neo-Nazi ideologies, and other skinheads who pursued other interests such as music expression or a fight against racism as exhibited by the Skinheads against racial prejudice group. The right winged skinheads who majorly follow a racial goal of purifying their lands from minority races and establish white supremacy, often endorse racial violence against non whites. Within America, the rise of the skinhead subculture in the late eighties has majorly been racial from the very start. These have stressed the binary divisions between whites and other races and often have only binary descriptions in this regard: friend versus enemy and us verses them. The racial skinhead subculture is similar to neo-Nazi ideologies in the sense that aggression is mainly targeted to certain racial groups. In this case scenario, the most hated are often Jews, since the skinheads view them as the ones who have taken all the economic privileges in the country. They also abhor blacks and other races, whom they consider as inferior races to the white race. Over the past three decades, the racist skinhead subculture has continually evolved to be more sophisticated in the way it uses the internet to spread its propaganda. Though various extremist skinhead activities were weakened after 9/11 attacks in the US due to another of issues such as arrest of some leaders and death of another (Sinderbrand, 2004:38), since 2004, and over the past five years most of the groups have been regrouping, getting integrated and increasingly carrying out race motivated attacks on people (Anti Defamation League, 2012a:1). Since such groups often surge during times of economic distress and seek to put blames on various racial groups for taking away all jobs in the economy, I contend that it is probably due to the recent economic recession that most of these racist skinheads have regrouped. It is due to this reason that this paper finds it important to study the intricacies of the brand community of the skinhead subculture, and specifically the racist skinheads. The study will use subculture theory to understand why the skinhead group is a subculture and to tease out specific elements and themes concerning a specific example of racist skinhead: Hammerskin Nation. It will also analyze empirical studies as to attributes of this group in order to understand their practice. To this end, the key research questions will be what the main characteristics of the brand Hammerskin Nation are, why they have these characteristics and why they are a subculture based on clear themes concerning their movements that have been teased out and highlighted theoretical attributes. Literature review Historical perspective of the racial Skinhead The start of the skinhead head movement can be traced in the UK back in the 1950s and the 1960s. During this time several young people defined themselves separately by adopting a high stylish lifestyle bordered on mainly styles adopted by the British rock bands, US R$B, as well as movie stars. Brown (2004: 175) observes these earlier young people known as mods, who were less inclined to violence, became known for their devotion to music, fashion, scooters and their general consumerism. Since not all of the fashion trendy adhering to mod subculture could afford to have the latest trends in fashion, the group split off into two, the well off referred to as the smooth mods and the working class mods who could less afford the fashion trends. Nordstrom and Robben (1995:87) show that due to this the hard mods preferred to be sported in suspenders, boots and straight legged jeans. The hard mods mainly enjoyed he hard rock, reggae tunes and the ska music. They also had close shaven heads and it is from this that the term skinheads originated from. The original subculture of the skinheads consisted of both blacks and whites and as a group they never taken so much care about their skin color (Snow et al, 1980: 797). Rather than a political inclination, these groups’ interests were mainly attached to style, music and the latest trends in fashion. Notably, they preferred music from Jamaica’s rude boys and were mainly influenced by the rebellious musical connotations of hard rock and reggae music. In the 1970’s the subculture of skinheads started splitting off into other subcultures mainly due to the economic hardships experienced within the working class (Taylor, 1994), and this gave rise to white supremacists skinheads who mainly blamed the hardships to foreigners and other races who they claimed took away all the jobs in the economy. Such included the British movement and the National Front who strongly believed that quite a number of problems attached to social and economic issues were due to the presence of black or non-white emigrants into the United Kingdom. Most of these supremacist groups started following the Nazi ideologies of Adolf Hitler in fighting for the superior Aryan race by violently ruling over other races. There though also arose another group of skinheads who opposed the racism propagated by the racial skinhead groups commonly known as Sharp to imply Skinheads against Racial Prejudice (SHARP). This group has been growing and is said to be a big subculture amongst the skinhead subcultures especially in the United States of America (Ferree and Martin, 1995: 228). The rise of the skinhead subculture in the US in late 1980s due to British influence bordered more on racism and white supremacy, even though they were still heavily influenced by music, fashion trends and having a good time. Viewed in terms of political ideologies, racist skinheads range from the “far-right and racist to far-left and anti-fascist” (Marshall, 1991:107). At first, the racist skinhead group appeared to be a rebellious subculture of youth. Robb (2006) observes that of late they have been associated with emergences of violence especially with the racist skinheads. These are mostly aligned to the white youths of shaven skinhead and boot wearing groups and had been associated with criminal activities such as murders and vandalism. While at first most were unclear in their objectives except for their abhorrence of the minority rate, overtime, this obsession has evolved and become a strong following with strong ideologies, principles and beliefs strongly based on Adolf Hitler’s supremacist ideologies and those of Ku Klux Klan of annihilating all other races considered inferior to ensure survival of the Aryan race (Blee, 1996:698). Theoretical framework on White Supremacy and racial skinhead movements Racial skinhead movements and their white supremacists ideas are mainly noted to take a conservative approach in their movement and to be motivated irrationally in their intolerance of other races. As McVeigh (1999:1463) notes such movements are mainly driven by defensive actions in the response to the perception of declining influence and power whether real or imagined. Most of the leaders in recruiting more members have mainly focused on the threatened status of the white race as the supreme race, making a call to all members to take action for a sacred cause of protecting the interests of the Aryan race. Critical themes that have been recurrent in racial skinheads have been: the divine superiority of the white race and the inherent inferiority of all others, and the strong fight for the right of the white race as the supreme race. The racial skinheads have fostered a group solidarity and collective identity that allows the members to voice their ideologies and grievances in collective voice, and to offer an alternative to other more mainstream ideological frameworks (Blazak, 2001; McVeigh, 1999). In justifying the above themes, some racists skinheads such as the Christian Identity movement have use religion as a way of justifying their hatred, while others such as Hammerskin Nation mainly emphasize the significance of maintaining white pride and supremacy, and this being the main source of identity and heritage based on Odinist beliefs (Sharpe, 2000; Dobratz, 2001). Dobrat (2001:287) stipulates in his theoretical constructs that indeed religion have been constructed and reconstructed by racist skinheads as a way of reinforcing how the members identify with the white race. It presents a strong framework upon which the racial views are based and which defines the collective identity of the groups. Additionally, the call for white rights has provided a strong notion and view that whites are being victimized, and this has provided a strong basis upon which racial skinheads recruit and call to arms all the whites. Beck (2000:154)theorized that most white supremacist organizations have exploited the wide spread notion that whites in the American culture lack ethnic characteristics, to show that whites are becoming a persecuted minority not fully allowed to celebrate and explore their identities and ethnicity. A notable central theme in the racist skinheads is in their focus in clearly defining the “us” from the “others” and the negative impacts that the “others” have on society and the Aryan race in general (Blazak, 2001; Perry, 2000; Sinderbrand, 2004). Research shows that though whites in the American society clearly experience the lowest levels of being alienated racially, racial skinheads have still continued to provide grievances on white oppression identifying policies such as affirmative action, civil rights movements in propagating for minority and women’s rights, and the lack of recognition of the whites as having a racial or ethnic heritage, as key examples by which whites are increasingly being oppressed and unfairly put at a social disadvantage (Blazak, 2001; Beck, 2000; Blee, 2002). These grievances not only play the purpose of identity formation and collective identity, but also an interpretive framework justifying their cause. Subculture theory The racist skinhead is in itself a youth culture as most members of such groups are mainly the youth. A subculture mainly looks at the actions and way of life of a subset social group that differs from the dominant culture in society in society. In this sense Blackman (2005) views a subcultural theoretical construct as one which explains the values and behaviors of a group that are different from the mainstream group or culture as they seek to develop a solution (Cheddy, 2010).The subcultural theoretical framework first put forward by Centre for Contemporary Studies (CCCS) from Birmingham University mainly ascribes to the analysis of youth subcultures using Marxist theories and analysis (Bennett, 1999:602; Cheddy, 2010). In this they attribute the rise of subcultures as a response to various structural changes and class relations. It is this construct that will used to analyze the Hammerskin Nation to determine the authenticity of racial authenticity and resistance strategy adopted by the group. A subcultural analysis into Hammerskin Nation Skinhead Hammerskin Nation Characteristics The Hammerskin Nation (HSN) Skinheads are the largest neo Nazi skinheads in the United States of America and have a wide network of members internationally in countries such as Britain, Australia, Canada and Germany. Formed in 1988, the Hammerskins promote white supremacy ideologies, and promote racial violence against non whites, mainly targeting blacks, Jews and homosexuals. The members of this group range from very young people from their early teens to strong veterans of the groups well into their fifties. Even though the HSN have these older veterans it tends to be more of a youth subculture with majority of the members being in their early twenties and late tens. Among the skinheads, about 60-70% are men while 30-40% are females (Anti Defamation League, 2012). An evaluation of the group and its activities by the Anti-Defamation League (2005) revealed that the members are exclusively white and mostly white males who disagree strongly with multicultural ideologies and seek to promote white supremacy. Notable ways that the Hammer Nation skinheads express themselves is mainly through white power music, hard rock concerts and through violence expression towards the targeted minorities. As noted an observable characteristic of these group are their clean shaven heads, tattooed bodies and their use of neo Nazi symbols such as the Swastika. Hammerskin Nation, a subculture? Using the subculture theory as a framework in analyzing the Hammerskin Nation skinheads, a clear understanding as to why and how this group fits as a subculture in the contemporary American society can clearly be elucidated. A sub culture is viewed as a culture within a wider culture that seeks to set itself apart or one that deviates from the norm. The Hammerskins in this regard can be distinguished due their distinctive appearances of clean shaven heads, their hammer tattoos that distinguishes them from the rest and the various symbolic connotations and ideologies that this group adheres to (Baysinger, 2006). The subcultural theoretical framework first put forward by Centre for Contemporary Studies (CCCS) from Birmingham University mainly ascribes to the analysis of youth subcultures using Marxist theories and analysis (Bennett, 1999:602). In this they attribute the rise of subcultures as a response to various structural changes and class relations. Analyzing the Hammerskins, they mainly rose up to defy the increasingly integration of various races in the US and the decreasing significance of the white as a majority race, and also as a response to the diminishing economic opportunities, rising economic pressures, increased immigration of Asians and Latinos into the US and the growth of minority gangs such as African American gangs and Latino gangs. In addition, they rose to oppose the rising mixing up of races in the country resulting to a more multicultural society. These groups have responded to structural changes and changes in the social class system within the American society as a result of increased freedoms. In this sense, the Hammerskins would be implied to be a subculture as they adhere to a certain ideology and appeal to a certain of individuals. While initially the group mainly clashed with other minority gangs and non whites, overtime it has grown to be a strong white power group spreading white supremacy ideologies and actively recruiting young people into the movement (Brown, 2004). As noted earlier, the Hammerskin mainly comprises of a huge majority of the youth in the late teens and early twenties and therefore has a strong youth subculture strongly rooted in expression through music and their dress codes. A significant factor in the Hammerskin subculture is the identity that they provide each of their members as people join the group in order to belong. Notably such individuals are required to change their way of life and adapt to the Hammerskin way of living, values, and ideologies. A key part in this culture lies in their appearance and dressing code which gives them a single identity and have strong subcultural theoretical connotations of commitment, consistency and coherency (Atkins, 2010:117; Bennett, 1999:602-605). Such would include heavy tattoos, shaven heads, and a strong adherence to white power music. A closer analysis into what drives the Hammerskin subculture shows that the members strongly idealize various people who have sought to fight for the supremacy of the “Aryan” race such as the Nazi’s and Vikings. The core belief in this skinhead group is that multiculturalism is simply forcing other ideologies on the white race through forced integration in order to nullify the significance of the white race in the world which they belief is far superior than all other races. They support eugenics in order to maintain the purity of the white race, and seek to establish authenticity in the white race (Simi, & Futrel, 2010). Since this group is a strong neo Nazi group which highly regards Adolf Hitler for seeking to secure the supremacy of the white race, they generally deny any form of holocaust but rather celebrate Adolf Hitler’s birthdays in his honor, and hold neo-Nazi rallies, conferences that deny the Holocaust, and music festivals such as Hammerfest which are so far their strongest point of expressing their subculture. These strong ideologies held by the Hammerskins and other white power groups can be traced way back through history where the whites were the most advantaged races both in trade and development, and often lead the exploration expeditions of various regions of the world. As they established their dominance to various parts of the world through colonization, and imperialism, it became widely perceived that white was a superior race. The radical shift towards more integration of various races over the past seven decades with has been characterized by increased intermarriages a more inclusively diverse society, the power of white supremacy started declining. The Hammerskins subculture in pushing forward for such ideology is part of a long running culture and belief that whites are supreme (Brown, 2004). The Hammerskins though differ in the sense that they seek to push forward the ideology through violent expressions towards the target races. While the Hammerskin skinhead’s integrated group has weakened over the past decade due to internal wrangles and fights with the Vinlander Social Club, another skinhead group, the subculture and ideology has remained deeply entrenched with the various differing factions of the groups still spreading the culture of white supremacy (Atkins, 2010:117). Over the past decade, the Hammerskin skinhead culture has evolved both in its abilities to recruit and its expressions due to enhancements in technology. The ideologies now reach millions of members worldwide through the internet and social media sites, and higher quality and increased free expression in the American society through white supremacy power rock music. Empirical analysis and evidence of Hammerskin Nation subculture An empirical research through ethnographic study conducted Campbell (2006) to determine the connection between white racist identity and skinhead identity in an online environment found that while racism may not be the core factor in skinhead identity, a strong commitments and major commitment was on white identity. It also concluded that skinhead express the essence of whiteness through skinness characterized by head shaving. While Campbell did not find a direct relation between racism and skinheads, he concluded the strong views of protecting white supremacy though have tended to result to aggressive relations between the skinheads and other non white people. In this sense a key theoretical attribute of the group is mainly pegged in protecting white supremacy and adopting aggressive means in doing so. Another empirical research work by the Anti-Defamatory League (2005) of various detained Hammerskin Nation skinheads due to violence perpetration found that the Hammerskin Nation skinheads tend to have unwavering commitment to the group and higher white supremacy. Another notable theoretical attribute noted by Ray and Marsh II (2001:3) empirical analysis into the ways that the skinhead groups use in recruiting young people through the internet notes that Hammerskin Nation websites appeals to young adults and teens and through a variety of links provides free music downloads of radical power white rock music. The group uses an easy user interphase to appeal to young people, and announces of various concerts. To this end, the skinhead group uses various propaganda techniques that label other races as people that should be feared or hated. Notably, Hammerskins use epithets and even use scientific authority such as the Darwinian evolutionary theory to justify various ideas promoted by the groups (Hammerskins, 2012). The proliferation of violence within the Hammerskin Nation skinheads is based on the tendency of the subculture of embracing norms and values that permit use of violence under given circumstances. Within this proposition is the theory of disputatiousness which strongly views violence as the main mechanism through which the subculture can protect and maintain the status of white supremacy. Wolfgang and Ferracuti (Ontario Ministry of Children and Youth Services, 2011) posit that violent reactions to various perceived threats of honour place in society or reputation are often culturally backed given that with no adequate reaction a group may be disadvantaged. In such cases, violence are used as a tool for social control, where the result may be that members may tend to guiltlessly perform violent acts with little provocation. Conclusion In view of the skinhead subculture, this paper has focused on the racist skinhead subculture and in specific the Hammerskin Nation analyzing using theoretical constructs the groups’ ideological framing and themes that define it as a subcultural group. This analysis has provided theoretical constructs of the grouping and the key ideological frameworks that define their standing explain their reasoning and justify their course of action. The findings have several implications, first and foremost, the cultures within such groups are complex and mainly involve the use of symbols and themes that define and interpret the essence of the group. Notably, critical themes that have occurred in Hammerskin Nation skinhead’s movement and indeed in racial skin heads are mainly the divine superiority of the white race and the inherent inferiority of all others, and the strong fight for the right of the white race as the supreme race. The racial skinheads have fostered a group solidarity and collective identity that allows the members to voice their ideologies and grievances in collective voice, and to offer an alternative to other more mainstream ideological frameworks. Adopting the position that whites are being victimized through highlighting instances such as affirmative action policies, civil rights movements in propagating for minority and women’s rights, and the lack of recognition of the whites as having a racial or ethnic heritage, they note that whites are increasingly being disadvantaged with their superiority diminishining. With such strong views and beliefs with which Hammerskin recruits its members, then it is a strong part of a subculture in America that requires further analysis and study. References Aho, J. A 1994, “This thing of darkness: A sociology of the enemy”, Seattle: University of Washington Press Anti Defamation League 2005, “Extremism in America: The Hammerskin Nation”. 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