Analysis of Case Studies - Essay Example

Short Report on Case Studies Author’s Name: Author’s Institution: Date: Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Case Study 4.1: Diagnosing the Causes of Poor Performance 2 Causes of Heather’s Poor Performance 2 Remedying the Performance Problem 3 Case Study 4.2: Differentiating Task from Contextual Performance 3 Case Study 4.3: Choosing a Performance Measurement Approach at Paychex 5 Performance Appraisal Methods 5 Recommended Performance Appraisal Methods for Paychex 7 Case Study 4.4: Deliberate Practice Makes Perfect 7 Five steps 7 Improving Presentation skills 8 References 10 Case Study 4.1: Diagnosing the Causes of Poor Performance Causes of Heather’s Poor Performance Employee performance is critical for the success of an organisation (Kennerley and Neely, 2003, 213). A poor performance of an employee should wary human resource manager. Thus, diagnosing the causes of poor performance becomes significant in reversing the trend. In teaching profession, one approach of evaluating the performance is through the feedback from the students (Chulkov & Alstine, 2012, p.162). In this perspective, the role of instructor in knowledge acquisition becomes important (Wongsurawat, 2011, p.67 & 68). The case of Heather underperformance presents an interesting scenario. Heather’s scenario elicits mixed reaction since she is able to top explicitly state facts learn. However, if interrogated further, she is not able to offer solutions. As a manager, the entry point of analysing Heather’s poor performance is through Anderson (1982 & 1983) model of knowledge acquisition (Matsuo & Kusumi, 2002, p.842). Three stages exist in the Anderson (1982 & 1983) knowledge acquisition model. These include the declarative stage, knowledge compilation phase and lastly, the procedural phase (Dillard-Eggers & Roberts, 2010, p.92; Matsuo & Kusumi, 2002, p.842). According to Matsuo & Kusumi (2002, p.842); Dillard-Eggers & Roberts (2010, p.92), “this model proposes that knowledge is acquired as a set of facts at the verbal level (declarative stage) and that the knowledge is then converted into a procedural form with practice (knowledge compilation). Subsequently, there is fine tuning of the knowledge so that it can be applied more appropriately, and there is gradual process of acceleration (procedural stage)”. In a nutshell, this model observes that learning starts with knowing facts, practicing them and applying them in real life. Cohen (1984 cited in Osterberg, 2004, p.147) indicates that “declarative knowledge is represented in a system … in which information is… first processed or encoded then stored in some explicitly accessible form for later use, and then ultimately retrieved upon demand”. On the other hand, procedural knowledge is based on the earlier two phases and involves inferring so as to attain the desired objectives. This stage is demarcated with high speed of solving problems with ease (Dillard-Eggers & Roberts, 2010, p.92). Subsequently, the question that emerges is that where is the deficiency in Heather’s performance? Based on the above model, the deficiency in her performance lies in the third phase. The rationale behind this later statement is based on the fact that she is able to deliver the various facts and theories about the subject. This is the declarative stage. In addition, she has been able to reach up to second stage (knowledge compilation). This is because she is able to draw from various theoretical propositions and create implications. For instance, she is able to explain “what managers need to know to be successful” by drawing from the facts and theoretical propositions. However, her failure is in the last phase. The students noted that “she had hard time answering specific questions”. This means that she is not able to infer the implication of the facts onto real life. Remedying the Performance Problem The first perspective of heather that should be enhanced so as to make her effective is changing her learning style from theorist to theorist cum pragmatist learning style (Zapalska & Brozik, 2006, p.326). The second would be to train her based on Kolb’s learning cycle. Kolb noted that learning takes places between two intersecting continua of perception and processing. Moreover, he notes that this takes place in four stages with each continuum (perception and processing) having two (Morris, Porter & Griffiths, 2004, p. 93). The faculties under the continua are watching, thinking, doing and feeling. Watching involves observation and reflection about an event. The second phase which is feeling involves abstraction and conceptualization of the issue at hand. The third step is doing which involves testing the implications. The final step is thinking and it involves applying concrete experiences to the event. Kolb 1984 cited in Morris, Porter & Griffiths (2004, p. 94) notes that engaging learners in all these four steps enhances learning. This will help eradicate her inability to respond to questions since she would be delivering the contents from a holistic perspective. Case Study 4.2: Differentiating Task from Contextual Performance The role an individual whether a manager or an employee plays in organisation is critical for the success of the organisation. The managers role involves two sets of distinct functions which are either technical in nature depending on one’s training or job position and ‘soft’ role (Gillard, 2009, p.726). Technical skills are what the manager is paid to do and involves the traditional roles like controlling, planning and organising among others (Ramesh, 2010, p. 2 & 3).on the other hand, sift skills are peoples skills that allow one to navigate the social world at work place effectively. Most of these are not paid for yet they are integral and include motivation, emotional intelligence and team work. Indeed, there is proof that job performance is more than applying certain sets of skills and techniques (Bish, Bradley & Sergent, 2004, p.393). From another perspective, these roles can be conceptualised as task and contextual performance (p.136). There are various works that have greatly contributed to the concept of task and contextual performance. According to Jawahar & Carr (2007, p.330), task performance the real duties one is employed to undertake and it’s the one that differentiates one’s role in the organisation from the other. On the other hand, he notes that contextual performance is discretionary patterns that are formally required by any given job descript. Nevertheless, these behaviours are significant in forming the social context of all jobs. All of the above are integral in attaining organisational goals, but through different platforms (Hosie & Sevastos, 2009, p.136). Motowidlo et al. (1997 cited in Hosie & Sevastos, 2009, p.136) notes that task performance entails contributing to the technical core of the job description by putting into operation technological processes or by aiding it with required materials or services. On the other hand contextual performance entails psychological networks among people that are optional or unrestricted contribution to the firm and have indirect or uncertain reward. Bandura & Lyons (2012, p.94) sees contextual performance as helpful employee behaviour that supersedes the normal expectation of a particular job requirement. They note that these behaviours are “voluntary, freely-given and not tied to some performance contingency such as pay, advancement, bonus or incentive” (Bandura & Lyons, 2012, p.95). Using the framework developed by the works of Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Motowidlo & Schmit, 1999 and Van Scotter et al., 2000, Bish, Bradley & Sergent (2004, p.393); Hosie & Sevastos (2009, p.137) gives examples of task performance and contextual performance. Hosie & Sevastos (2009, p.137) identifies manager’s contextual performance as persisting, volunteering, helping, following and endorsing. The same is affirmed by (Bish , Bradley & Sergent, 2004, p.393) who notes that a manager has to volunteer for extra activities, persist with enthusiasm when completion of a critical work is required, cooperating and helping other, adhering to rules and procedures even if might be incontinent and lastly, working towards organisational goals by open endorsing and supporting them. In terms of managers’ task performance, Hosie & Sevastos (2009, p.137) identifies a host of tasks. These include but not limited to influencing, administering, coordinating, planning, communicating, staffing, stressing, guiding, deciding, representing, interpreting persisting and ensuring organisational effectiveness. Based on the above theoretical framework and examples, we can extract a list of task and contextual performances behaviour based on the District Business Manager job description. Task performance for the District Business Manager include developing & communicating the business plan, understanding and explaining BMS strategies, translating national plan to plans for districts & territories, setting of goals & expectations of performance, setting priorities in allocation of resources, execution and implementation of the business plan, maximise rank order list of medical education professional relationships, achieve optimum coverage frequency of highest potential physicians, take accountability. On the other hand, contextual performance include building relations/ networks focused on customer retention, influencing others at internal and external level, developing self and others, strong skills in communication, negotiation, leadership, team building and coaching. Case Study 4.3: Choosing a Performance Measurement Approach at Paychex Performance Appraisal Methods Employees are critical in ensuring implementation of the organisations strategy. With the development of performance management, measurement and reward management in the competitive business environment, organisations are forced to measure the contribution of individual employees to the organisation with various approaches and standards. The approaches/ standards can be judgemental, objective, modern or traditional (Bhattacharyya , 2011, p.61). Einstein & LeMere-Labontes (1989); Monga (1983) cited in Bhattacharyya (2011) provides a list of six approaches in appraising performance. These include intuitive approach, self-appraisal approach, group approach, trait approach, result based approach and behavioural approach. Bohlander & Snell (2010, p.384) notes that behavioural approach involves analysing the actual behaviour of the employee or what the employee does and what is expected of him or what should be done differently. In this perspective, the human resource manager/ manager or the ‘rater’ check the employee behaviour/ performance against the desired scale. This is a judgemental approach or modern approach in appraising the employee performance (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.69-71). According to (p.69); (Bohlander & Snell, 2010, 384-385) these approaches employ various techniques and they include behavioural checklist method, behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS), behaviour observation scale (BOS), mixed standard scale (MSS). Other includes 360 degrees appraisal and potential appraisal (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.72-73). For instance, the 360-degree appraisal is a new behavioural approach that encompasses the input of the rateee/ employee. In this perspective, the inputs of other critical stakeholders are sought. These include seniors to the employee, peers, team members, customers and suppliers. The advantage of the approach is that it allows for total employee involvement (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.73). For behavioural checklist method, ‘the human resource manager checks the standard behaviour statements indicating some of the performance dimension’ (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.71; Bohlander & Snell, 2010, p.384). Lastly, behaviourally anchored rating scale employs five to ten vertical scales which are then identified through job analysis (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.70; Bohlander & Snell, 2010, p.384). Appraisal by result as a modern approach to evaluating employee performance entails examining his or her accomplishments through various parameters like errors, production and sales. These approaches include management by objective (MBO) and Productivity measure (p.66 & 67). Odiorne (1981, p.1) defines MBO as “a system of management whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify objectives, define individual major areas of responsibility in terms of results expected, and use these objectives and expected results as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its member”. Moreover, Koontz and O’Donnell (1980, p.485) see it as collaborative framework between supervisors and employees on the expected output. Recommended Performance Appraisal Methods for Paychex Before answering the question, it would be prudent to review in brief the situation in relation to performance at Paychex. The first observation is that there are certain activities they engage in like making direct calls which are not measured by their managers yet they are critical input. Secondly, they are mandate to perform various tasks as outlined in their job responsibilities. These can be measured at the end of financial year. The question to be answered here based on the literature review above and the situation at Paychex is whether they should adopt behavioural approaches, result-based approaches or a combination of the two in appraising the performance of their employees (account executives). To me and as guided by the above literature, it would be fruitful if the organisation adopted a mixed approach that combines both behavioural approach and the result-based approach. The rationale behind this proposition is based on the fact that the link between behaviours and result is not automatic at a time. For instance, the accounts executives often make calls individual to the clients. This makes it difficult for their managers to observe their performance. Thus, if they would apply result-based approach, the employees would be rated below par, but if they employ behavioural approach that looks at what the employees do they will be rated favourably. Equally it would be critical to apply result-based approach through methods like management by objective so as to establish the output of the accounts executives as per the task performance. Case Study 4.4: Deliberate Practice Makes Perfect Five steps Skill acquisition and perfection is important for employee’s success. An employee who is able to acquire and build a perfect knowledge is an asset to the organisation. There are various studies that examine how employees can perfect their skills. One of the models that have been developed to explain this phenomenon is deliberate practice concept. Erickson (2003 cited in Alexander and Winne, 2006, p.258) in his work argues that deliberate practice is the principal determinant of building expertise. Moreover, Erickson and colleagues (cited in Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2003, p.19) indicates that “attaining expert, even elite performance in any domain is not related to innate talent or ability. Rather, expert performance can be acquired by anyone through focused effort and hard work”. This is what he terms as ‘deliberate practice’. In his argument, Erickson (2003 cited in Alexander and Winne, 2006, p.258) notes that deliberate practice is distinct from ordinary practice and jumbled skill building. He offers the following propositions as the point of distinction: deliberate practice is intentional and goal oriented, individual’s selects skills they wish to improve on and practice them before moving to another set, practice is systematic, the process is conducted in authentic setting or real world condition and lastly, individuals utilise feedback from at least three quarters. These are experts; mental visualisation generated from self-feedback and lastly strategy guides. Apart from these, Erickson (1996 cited in Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2003, p.19) postulates that deliberate practice isn’t inherently rewarding, but is for those who want improve their performance and are obsessed with it. Pietersen (2010, p.48) provides five steps that lead to excellence. The first step for an individual is to conduct situational analysis. This is what he terms as the learning stage. Under this stage, the individual who wants to attain excellence analyses the situation so as to gain insights, implications and challenges. The second step is to define the choices and vision. This stage involves focusing by outlining winning propositions, priorities and sealing of performance gaps. The third stage involves aligning individual’s aspirations with externalities like measure and rewards, structure and process, culture and people. The fourth stage is to engage in the real action by implementing the plan. Lastly, is to monitor and review and if there is ant need then one start at step one. Improving Presentation skills To be able to communicate effective in large gatherings, Ricardo should follow the following four steps. The first is to determine his style which will work for depending on his personality and the topic to be presented. The reality is that presenting scientific data is different from product promotion. Secondly, he should be able to use humour in his presentations to reduce the tensions and anxiety while facing large audience. Moreover, this allows him to connect with the audience. The third stage is to determine the core of the information. This will allow him to go straight to the point and deliver it precisely. In a nutshell, he must be able to determine what he want to say, how he intend to do so and the effect he wants that information to have. All these must be done in a well organised manner. 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