Catchment Management - Essay Example

Running Head: Catchment Health and Management Catchment Health and Management s Catchment Health and Management Inthe late 1980s, communities in Western Australia became concerned about a number of environmental issues that they felt were being mismanaged by government agencies. The main areas of concern included widespread clearing of native bush for agriculture, eutrophication of water bodies, salinization of land and water, erosion, and soil degradation. In addition, an ever-increasing human population had heightened the demand for the proper use and protection of natural resources. In Perth, for example, there was much debate over the use of urban land near groundwater reserves. Such issues sometimes pit government agencies against each other because of their differing individual legislative requirements and perceived priorities and goals. These concerns and conflicts gradually led community leaders to recognize the need for integrated catchment management (ICM), which is the planning and management of a river or groundwater catchments natural resources to achieve sustainable use for social and economic development. 1. Give an example of a sequence of events relevant to catchment management that conform with a complete Adaptive Cycle. Describe the sequence in terms of the three properties or dimensions of the Cycle. The development of catchment-scale stream rehabilitation programmes in many parts of the world marks a shift from the application of reach-based engineering principles towards an adoption of ecosystem-centred, adaptive and participatory approaches to river management. From a biophysical viewpoint, this represents recognition of the importance of the inherent geodiversity of aquatic ecosystems and the benefits that are gained through enhancing natural recovery mechanisms. As this approach to river management matures, it is important that its key elements and assumptions are subjected to critical appraisal. In this paper, the main features of contemporary catchment-wide programmes are examined through a review of pertinent literature and through examination of various case studies from North America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Emerging challenges and tensions include those of generating an authentic and functional biophysical vision at the catchment scale, of developing a proactive adaptive management approach, of achieving genuine community participation and of integrating biophysical and social factors in a transdisciplinary framework. Issues of scale, natural variability and complexity must be addressed in meeting these challenges. The effects of a non-station ary climate on a water management system in the Warta River Catchment in Central Poland which already suffers from seasonal water deficits are exam ined in this paper. To determine a range of possible implications of global change on the region of interest, two scenarios were selected for the study: the warm-dry scenario predicted by the GFDL model, and warm scenario obtained from the GISS model. It is shown that the basins water supply and demand are both sensitive and vulnerable to clim atic changes. Possible adaptation options to cope with further degradation of domestic, industrial and agricultural water supplies are recommended. 2. There is increasing pressure to restore disturbed areas to aesthetically-pleasing and functional ecosystems. Although the former objective may be relatively easily met, the second is not so simple. Outline some of the complexities that the rehabilitation officer might encounter when trying to restore a disturbed area to a fully-functioning ecosystem. The effects associated with land-use change are multiple and have an impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems over continental, regional and local scales. Separating and ascribing a particular effect to any individual causal factor is difficult as it requires consideration not only of geographical scale but also the historical aspect of the land-use change. Increasingly, government policies require that an integrated approach is taken to protecting the integrity of whole ecosystems (Schonter & Novotny, 1993), and so we must seek to understand the multiple linkages which exist between landscape structure, ecosystem processes and functioning across various spatial scales. For water catchments, structure may be defined as the spatial relationship or arrangement of an ecosystems attributes, while processes and functions refer to the interaction that takes place between them (Hunsaker & Levine, 1995). Unfortunately, there is disagreement over what constitutes the key structural and functional components of the local environment. Developing an integrated approach to resource management is inherently difficult, particularly when it involves multiple issues spread across different geographical and temporal scales (Lijklema, 1998). Notably, we lack a flexible, contextual framework for interpreting and extrapolating location- and time-specific scientific information to the wider environment. Where the environmental impact involves effects on the biological community it is essential to have some initial understanding of the surrounding ecological context. Without a general consensus of what should be included within an organizational frame-work, divergent hypotheses regarding the structure and function of ecological systems may develop (Wiley et al., 1997). This is compounded where previously collected data have limited or biased value due to inadequacies of the initial experimental design and sampling programmes which, unfortunately, is true for many environmental research and some monitoring programmes. This paper reports on a topical example of the need to re-appraise an ecosystems structural and functional components, namely, the quantification and management of landscape-level impacts on nutrient cycling and species diversity caused by land-use change. In general, a direct linkage exists between an increase in nutrient availability and increased productivity, and is usually associated with a reduction in species diversity. Eutrophication is an example of such an effect, and commonly involves nitrogen (N) and/or phosphorus (P) entering salt or fresh waters. A number of illustrative examples are discussed, and these provide an indication of the complexities of issues surrounding this general topic, and the need for multi-disciplinary scientific approaches. 3. What is cross-sectoralism and give an example of its relevant application for catchment management? In the late 1980s, communities in Western Australia became concerned about a number of environmental issues that they felt were being mismanaged by government agencies. The main areas of concern included widespread clearing of native bush for agriculture, eutrophication of water bodies, salinization of land and water, erosion, and soil degradation. In addition, an ever-increasing human population had heightened the demand for the proper use and protection of natural resources. In Perth, for example, there was much debate over the use of urban land near groundwater reserves. Such issues sometimes pit government agencies against each other because of their differing individual legislative requirements and perceived priorities and goals. These concerns and conflicts gradually led community leaders to recognize the need for integrated catchment management (ICM), which is the planning and management of a river or groundwater catchments natural resources to achieve sustainable use for social and economic development. In November 1987, the Western Australian government created the Integrated Catchment Management Policy Group to develop an ICM strategy that would better coordinate government activities and reduce and manage environmental impacts from land uses. The agencies involved were those with key responsibilities for land and water management and included the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Conservation and Land Management, the Environmental Protection Authority, the Waterways Commission, the Water Authority, the Department of Planning and Urban Development, the Department of Local Government, and the Department of Premier and Cabinet. 4. You are a catchment coordinator and you have just spent two hours with an elderly farmer who told you stories about their childhood growing up on a farm in your catchment. They included detailed comments about vegetation, water quality, fire, the grazing of kangaroos, and many of the comments would directly challenge conventional wisdom underlying the current management of the catchment. How would you report this to your catchment committee, and what sequence of steps would you suggest they take? There is less synchrony of agricultural management in systems of small fields, creating conditions for greater stability in invertebrate populations since each field supports a sub-population that, when depleted by cultivation or pesticide application, can recover through immigration of individuals from neighbouring fields. The role of field boundaries becomes critical here, since rapid movement of individuals from neighbouring fields after pesticide application could lead to mortality of the immigrants. If field boundaries completely prevent between-field movement there will be no recovery, but semi-permeable boundaries will allow the development of a stable metapopulation structure for individual species (Sherratt & Jepson, 1993) that would translate to viable populations of several species. Within agricultural areas the mosaic arrangement of individual fields provides a strong physically based element to the structural arrangement of the landscape. A series of agronomic-based decisions made at the farm-unit level provide a cyclical pattern to field management factors associated with particular crops. Although there is less reliance placed on traditional crop rotations by conventional farming systems, some residual cropping pattern remains for pest/disease control purposes and other logistical reasons. Previous cropping history is important for a number of reasons, but especially where one particular crop imparts a detrimental or beneficial environmental impact which carries over into later years. Root crops, for example potatoes, which are typically grown as part of a four- or five-year rotation, offer a particular example where pronounced detrimental effects can arise from the extremes of cultivation and herbicide/fertilizer required to grow the crop. Large nutrient inputs (compared to most other crops) and modest removal in the harvested product results in a substantial nutrient surplus being especially evident for P (typical fertilizer rate of 90 kg P/ha compared to 25 kg P/ha for wheat). The extensive soil cultivation associated with planting and harvesting stages can destroy soil structure and expose bare soil to the risks of erosion and nitrate leaching. Non-cultivated plant species, including bryophytes, are reduced in numbers compared with other arable crops by the late, intensive cultivation and the deep shade cast by potato plants once they are established. The total number of beetles and spiders associated with potatoes is much lower than for other arable crops in the rotation, due to frequent insecticide applications. Bird species numbers are also lowest in potatoes compared with other arable crops. The biological, soil physical structural degradation and nutrient cycling effects of potatoes can be long lasting and there is evidence for the detrimental effects on plants and invertebrates lasting for two years after the cultivation of potatoes. 5. Distinguish between i) focus groups, iii) public forums, and iv) search conferences. For many years agricultural science assumed that research was done by scientists, repackaged by extension officers, and launched at farmers. Both their knowledge systems and cultural roles were seen as different. Nowadays their roles are converging and their boundaries are eroding. There are fewer differences in how each group produces and uses knowledge, given its cultural specificity and context dependence. We suggest that groups that use participatory natural resource management techniques to combine farmers, scientists, and others at the boundary between science and farming exemplify this convergence of knowledge and roles. Two examples of boundary organisations are provided: producer-initiated research and development groups, and integrated catchment management committees. These may constitute a powerful force for improving the management of natural resources on farms. 6. Scientific research is an essential component of catchment management activities. Two approaches to research seem poles apart: a expert-driven research process and a participatory action research process. Distinguish between the two, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each. Use examples where appropriate. One of the difficulties that surfaces in this interaction between scientists and the community is the dilemma of participation. Put simply, how can "the community" participate effectively in what appears to be a science-centered decision-making process? The ICM groups are dependent on government agencies for interpreted information and advice. It seems contradictory that they are required to obtain highly interpreted information from others, yet still retain the autonomy needed to make decisions regarding the allocation of resources. Therein lies the dilemma, for ICM groups need to understand the complexities of the catchment system that they are seeking to manage, including the relative priority that should be accorded different resource management issues. However, in the absence of tools (or expertise) to help to integrate current scientific understanding, interpret that information, and apply it at a relevant scale, it is an almost impossible task. Quite simply, the requisite information, if it exists at all, is often not available in a form that is easy to understand or use. In this respect, decision support systems (DSS) can play a valuable role. A DSS environment allows a number of "what if" questions to be asked and answered; the user can explore the effect of potential management decisions without having to deal with the consequences. Application of DSS in natural resource management at a catchment scale has been limited largely to applications focusing on single and highly constrained issues such as water quality or forest management (Jamieson and Fedra 1996; Walker and Johnson 1996). Increasingly, however, they are being built to encompass the "big picture," promoting an understanding of the system as a whole, not just a few of its important parts. There has also been an emerging consensus for the need for an open participatory process surrounding the construction and use of DSS; Bonnicksen (1985) refers to this as "white box" policymaking. In the past, many DSS-style models have been unattractive because they are either "black box" models that hide critical assumptions about the way the system functions or are so abstract as to ignore many of the political realities of policymaking. Experience has shown that involving end users in the process is more likely to lead to the development of a knowledge base relevant to community needs (Bosch et al. 1996). 7. Briefly outline the five most significant historical precedences for the successes and/or failures of the landcare movement in Australia over the last 20 years, giving reasons for your choices. The concept of integrated catchment management (ICM) now forms the basis for sustainable land and water resource management in Australia. State and territory governments have moved to create regional (and often catchment-based) frameworks for land management planning and resource conservation. In 1991, for example, the Queensland State Government released an ICM strategy for Queensland, fostering cooperation and coordination between landholders and other resources users, community groups, and all levels of government. In New South Wales (NSW), a state policy for total catchment management (TCM) was released in 1987. In general, it committed the NSW government to "ensure the coordinated use and management of land, water, vegetation and other natural resources on a catchment basis". And, in Victoria, the notion of ICM now underpins the statutory framework for land, water, and vegetation management. Where ICM most differs between the states is in the administrative structures of resource and environmental agencies and in the nature of specific legislative support. Coupled with this shift has been a growing realization that, to make ICM work, a major community role is essential. This follows from the Landcare initiative, a community-based, participatory program established, by government, to address the problem of land degradation. Landcare involves communities banding together to tackle local problems (Campbell 1994). ICM policy statements speak of "partnerships in action" and of government and community "working together". Implementation of ICM is based, typically, on the establishment of community-led committees, whose major role is to provide a forum for community input and discussion, to prioritize the issues and to develop and promote the adoption of catchment management strategies. Regional ICM strategies, developed with community input, form the basis of partnership agreements between federal, state, and local governments and the community. 8. Understanding of the relationship between human health and conservation biology have (or have not) changed over the duration of the semester. Holling (1998,1) conceives of three "solitudes," or compartmentalized communities, which need to be united if we are to work toward more sustainable use of our natural resources: One solitude includes science and scholarship, one includes business and policy and one includes community and citizen action. Together, they can contribute to a sustainable future. Alone, they cannot. ICM in Australia ought to be an environment where this union does, indeed, occur; not only that, this union should result in management plans that represent a genuine collaborative effort. The advent of Landcare groups and, more recently, regional ICM groups has produced a learning community keen to collect and understand information relevant to their situation. It is these groups that are being asked to take the lead in integrating information and in applying it to catchment management planning. The challenge is to provide helpful scientific input to this community-led process and to get the conversation going. AEAM is a tool that, while not without its flaws, holds promise with respect to ICM. As argued in the literature, and supported by the Blackwood evaluation to date, it is a tool for adaptive management and has a capacity to facilitate social learning, enhance information flow among those involved, and provide opportunities for shared understandings. However, it requires an active and receptive community along with scientists who are prepared to engage with the community and provide their knowledge in a form usable by management. The extent to which AEAM, and approaches like it, contribute to the more sustainable use of our land and water resources awaits long-term assessment. Previous evaluations of AEAM have tended to focus on immediate outcomes. This study forms the first phase of an evaluation that seeks to measure the long-term effects of the approach and to provide a basis for ongoing evaluation. Reference Bonnicksen, T. M. 1985. Initial decision analysis (IDA): A participatory approach for developing resource policies. Environ. Manage. 9(5):379-392. Bosch, O. J. H., W. J. Allen, J. M. Williams, and A. H. Ensor. 1996. An integrated approach for maximising local and scientific knowledge for land management decision-making in the New Zealand high country. Rangeland J. 18(1):23-32. Campbell, A. 1994. Landcare. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Holling, C. S. 1998. Conversations. Conservation Ecology [online] 2(1):6. (http://www.consecol.org/vo12/iss1/art6) Hunsaker, C.T. & Levine, D.A. (1995) Hierarchical approaches to the study of water quality in rivers, Bioscience, 45, pp. 193-203. Jamieson, D. G., and K. Fedra. 1996. The "WaterWare" decision-support system for riverbasin planning: 1. Conceptual design. J. Hydrol. 177:163-175. Lijklema, L. (1998) Dimensions and scales, Water Science and Technology, 37, pp. 1-7. Schonter, R. & Novotny, V. (1993) Predicting attainable water quality using the ecoregional approach, Water Science and Technology, 28, pp. 149-158. Sherratt, T.N. & Jepson, P.C. (1993) A metapopulation approach to modelling the long term impact of pesticides on invertebrates, Journal of Applied Ecology, 30, pp. 696-705. Walker, D., and A. Johnson. 1996. Delivering flexible decision support for environmental management: A case study in integrated catchment management. Aust. J. Environ. Manage. 3(3): 174-188. Wiley, M.J., Kohler, S.L. & Seelbach, P.W. (1997) Reconciling landscape and local views of aquatic communities: lessons from Michigan trout streams, Freshwater Biology, 37, pp. 133-148. Read More