Communicating Effectively in Cross Cultural Communications - Speech or Presentation Example

?Running Head: CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS Communicating Effectively in Cross Cultural Communications Outline Introduction Competent communicators make use of interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. However, individuals' cultural backgrounds influence the ways they communicate and their perceptions of competence (Gudykunst, 1993). Body 1. Spitzberg and Cupach (2002) suggest that competent communicators provide definitions of competent communication. Competent communicators make use of interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. Interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation play an important role in that these three concepts contribute to developing competent communication. 2. Perceptions of effective communication differ among individuals with different cultural backgrounds. Tominaga et al. (2003) investigated perceptions of effective communication in the United States and Japan. Their qualitative research found differing themes for the perception of effectiveness in the United States and Japan. Conclusion In general, researchers accept and utilize the notion that competence involves dimensions of effectiveness and appropriateness such as interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. However, several Japanese researchers point out that there is a Western bias in competence research. Their research found differing themes for the perception of effectiveness in the United States and Japan Communicating Effectively in Cross Cultural Communications Introduction Effectiveness in communication is considered as an important component of communication competence (e.g., Gudykunst, 1993). Competent communicators make use of interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. However, individuals' cultural backgrounds influence the ways they communicate and their perceptions of competence (Gudykunst, 1993). Perceptions of effective communication also differ among individuals with different cultural backgrounds. Effective Communication in different cultures Effectiveness is considered as one of the major components of communication competence (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Wiemann (1977) defines competence as "the ability of an interactant to choose among available communicative behaviors in order that he [or she] may successfully accomplish his [or her] own interpersonal goals… while maintaining the face and line of his [or her] fellow interactants within the constraints of the situation" (p. 198). He (1977) proposes two underlying assumptions of competence: cognition and judgment. Each individual possesses cognitive notions about the nature of competence, and it is these cognitive notions that shape impressions of others' behavior (Wiemann, 1977). Moreover, these impressions become a basis for judgment of others and the individuals themselves. In other words, whether an individual is a competent communicator is based on his or her cognition of competence. Spitzberg and Cupach (2002) suggest that competent communicators provide definitions of competent communication. Competent communicators make use of interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. Interpersonal skills refer to recurrent goal-oriented behaviors, behavioral patterns, and sequences of behavior that are appropriate to an interactional context. There are two types of knowledge: content knowledge and procedural knowledge (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2002). Content knowledge refers to information about relational partners, topics of conversation, social contexts, regulation of language, and regulation of conversation (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2002). Procedural knowledge refers to information on processes of an interaction, such as how to formulate goals and how to solve problems during an interaction. Motivation is defined as "the affective force that energizes performance and guides a person's approach avoidance orientation to a social situation" (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2002, p. 575). Interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation play an important role in that these three concepts contribute to developing competent communication (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2002). Possession of the two types of knowledge and motivation enables an individual to perform in a skilled way during an interaction, and it consequently increases a possibility for the communicator to be perceived as competent. Spitzberg and Cupach (1984) classified competence into two approaches: outcome- focused approaches and message-focused approaches. Outcome-focused competence emphasizes effectiveness in achieving goals (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Therefore, this approach is strategic and goal-oriented (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Outcome-focused competence involves fundamental, social, and interpersonal competence (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Fundamental competence refers to "an individual's ability to adapt effectively to the surrounding environment over time to achieve goals" (p. 35). Social competence focuses on "specific abilities underlying (or manifested in) the performance of competent behavior" (p. 41). Interpersonal competence is defined as "the ability of communicators to accomplish tasks successfully" (p. 53). Message-focused competence concerns language and message behavior (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). This approach involves linguistic, communicative, and relational competence. Linguistic competence refers to "knowledge relevant to the use of language" (p. 58), including knowledge of language itself and its usage. Communicative competence is defined as the "ability to adapt messages appropriately to the interaction context" (p. 63). Relational competence focuses on the importance of sensitivity to situations and other persons in an interaction as well as goal achievement and communicative skills (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Relational competence is very important in communication (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Relational competence involves effectiveness and appropriateness. Effectiveness is defined as the extent to which individuals in an interaction achieve their preferred outcomes through communication (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). Appropriateness refers to the extent to which individuals' behavior is recognized as appropriate in an interaction (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). What behavior is considered as appropriate in a given context is socially or culturally determined. That is to say, even though individuals accomplish their goals in the interaction, if the communicators' behavior does not follow the socially-shared norms or rules of a society, their behavior may not be perceived competent (Takai & Ota, 1994). As indicated earlier, communication effectiveness is one competence of competence. Gudykunst (1993) defines effective communication as "minimizing misunderstanding." He argues that individuals' levels of uncertainty and anxiety need to be maintained between minimum and maximum thresholds to minimize misunderstanding, or communicate effectively. In order to do so, it is necessary for individuals to be mindful of their processes of communication. Coorientation theory provides a framework for understanding effective communication. Effective communication is comprised of understanding and accuracy (e. g., Mcleod & Chaffee, 1972). Understanding is defined as the level of similarity in perceptions that communicators have in common (Mcleod & Chaffee, 1972). Accuracy means the level of similarity between what speakers perceive and listeners' perceptions of what speakers perceive (Mcleod & Chaffee, 1972). Powers and Lowry (1984) suggest that effective communication involves basic communication fidelity. Basic communication fidelity refers to "the degree of congruence between the cognitions of two or more individuals following a communication event" (Powers & Lowry, 1984, p. 58). It appears that the definition of effective communication in coorientation theory and that of basic communication fidelity correspond to each other (Tominaga et al., 2003). Tominaga et al. (2003) investigated perceptions of effective communication in the United States and Japan. Their qualitative research found seven themes for the perception of effectiveness in the United States and nine themes in Japan. The themes isolated in the United States tended to be outcome-based and individual-focused, whereas those in Japan appeared to be process-based and relationship-focused (Tominaga et al., 2003). Based on common aspects of perceptions of effective communication in the United States and Japan, Tominaga et al. (2003) argued that their study could be used to develop a derived etic measure of communication effectiveness. Several Japanese researchers (e.g., Miyahara, 1995; Takai & Ota, 1994) point out a Western bias in the methods used to research communication competence. They state that due to the lack of valid cross-cultural assessments on the topic, imposed etic measures were often used to analyze communication competence in Japan. Conclusion In general, researchers accept and utilize the notion that competence involves dimensions of effectiveness and appropriateness such as interpersonal skills, knowledge and motivation. However, several Japanese researchers point out that there is a Western bias in competence research (Miyahara, 1995; Takai & Ota, 1994; Tominaga et al., 2003). They state that due to the lack of valid research instruments to study the topic researchers tend to use the methods developed in Western cultures, in particular, the United States, to analyze Japanese communication competence. Yet culture has a strong influence on competence, especially on the appropriateness dimension (Takai & Ota, 1994). Judged by Western standards, or so-called imposed etic measures, Japanese characteristics of communicative behavior might be considered as incompetent (Miyahara, 1995). References Gudykunst, W. B. (1993). Toward a theory of effective interpersonal and intergroup communication: Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) perspective. In R. L. Wiseman & Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 33­71). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. McLeod, J. M., & Chaffee, S. H. (1972). The construction of social reality. In T. Tedeschi (Ed.), The social influence processes (pp. 50-99). Chicago: Aldine­ Atherton. Miyahara, A. (1995). Meta-theoretical issues in conceptualization of Japanese communication competence. Keio Communication Review, 17,63-82. Powers, W. G., & Lowry, D. N. (1984). Basic communication fidelity: A fundamental approach. In R. N. Bostrom (Ed.), Competence in communication: A multidisciplinary approach (pp. 57-71). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Spitzberg, B. D., & Cupach, W. R. (1984). Interpersonal communication competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Spitzberg, B. D., & Cupach, W. R. (2002). Interpersonal skills. In M. Knapp & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Takai, J., & Ota, H. (1994). Assessing Japanese interpersonal communication competence. The Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(3), 224-236. Tominaga, J., Gudykunst, W., B., & Ota, H. (2003, May). Perceptions of effective Communication in the United States and Japan. Paper presented at the Intercultural Communication Association, San Diego. Wiemann, J. M. (1977). Explication and test of a model of communicative competence. Human Communication Research, 3, 195-213. Read More