Worker Health and Safety in China and Japan: A Comparison - Assignment Example

?Worker Health and Safety in China and Japan: A Comparison Introduction This report focuses on the influence of industrial relations on the establishment and implementation of health and safety practices in workplaces, particularly those in Japan and China. Changes in industrial relations have included certain transitions in the labor force and occupational structure, technological advancements, and globalization trends. Consequently, these shifts have led to organizations being faced with difficulties for enhancing training and practices to be applied in the work environment (Duetsch, 1990). Specifically, this paper emphasizes the health and safety aspects of the industrial relations in order to present recommendations with regards to possible preparations and improvements that firms can undertake. Over the previous decades, rapid globalization and considerable technological advancements have been evident in the workplace, thereby bringing about significant changes for countries over the world. The outcomes of these changes on workplace safety and health have become highly relevant as well (Cornia, 2001). In a number of cases, traditional risks have been either eliminated or reduced, although new advances in technology continue to lead to new hazards as well. Numerous workplace risks continue to persist and the quantity of work-related outcomes and concerns remain at an alarmingly high level (Bhavsar and Bhugra, 2008). In addition, many employees are also exposed to the new threats that have been brought about by changing work patterns, for instance, due to the outcomes brought about by unstable employment or the increasing pressure to address the demands of daily working life (Pearce and Matos, 1994). Age profiles of the workforce members along with gender balance in the working place have also changed due to the changes caused by globalization trends. Such changed employment patterns have led to considerable threats and risks that had been less evident or prevalent during the past decades (Taqi, 1996). Therefore, the following sections will then look into how changes in industrial relations, such as those relating to globalization and economy, technological trends, and employment patterns, have affected employees’ health and wellbeing along with the practices and interventions used by firms to meet such health and safety needs. Changes in Industrial Relations The considerable decline in the number of workforce members in both developed and developing countries has been associated with the feminization of the workforce, use of technology in both office environments as well as factors, and the globalization trends experienced by the economy. The increased number of racial and ethnic minorities within the workforce along with the increased level of requirements for educational attainment, skill, and overall experience has become equally important as well (Triegaardt, 2008). On the whole, the individuals who work and the type of work they carry out have considerably shifted during the past decades. Aside from these, the developments that were brought about by global economic crisis, focusing on the reduction of labor or costs attributed to production, have been evident as well. With part-time and contract employment, concessionary bargaining, as well as managerial philosophies that are unreceptive of collective bargaining, the context of industrial relations has experienced substantial transitions. Globalization During the past thirty years, an acceleration of change in political, economic, and social changes has been evident across the world, including in China and Japan. Globalization brought about rapid change that had a considerable impact on society’s various sectors, thereby influencing health conditions, standards of living, and increase of political freedom (Gu, 2001). However, majority of such changes have also led to adverse outcomes particularly when carried out in a sudden and unexpected manner. Income inequality has become more evident across countries, thereby affecting social organization and community involvement whereas labor market changes have had a great influence on unemployment and types of labor. While urban changes have influenced the quality of life among various communities, especially those of low socio-economic status, certain changes in the health sectors also impacted healthcare and social security among groups of individuals who are more vulnerable. China While China was previously viewed as in opposition to globalization trends, the country has changed into a globalization advocate and possesses an open economy (Overholt, 2005). China has adopted the rule of law, becoming highly committed to competition, widely applied the English language as well as foreign education, and adhered to foreign laws and policies, thereby bringing about substantial change in the Chinese civilization. The economic success of China has been attributed to globalization with which numerous workers have been able to enhance their living standards. Compared to Japan that was able to recover from war by highly managing its economy, China has been reported to demonstrate a higher level of support towards globalization, thereby instigating change in their industrial relations context (Chi, 2001). Chinese globalization has led to demanding adjustments; for instance, a decline of 44 million was reported in state enterprise employment whereas manufacturing jobs in the country declined by 25 million. Manufacturing companies have also experienced rapid consolidation. The open door policy has also led to the development of Chinese international trade, thereby allowing their integration with the international economy. Macroeconomic management and intensification of competition, however, have led to negative employee outcomes in relation to their performance and wellbeing outcomes. On the whole, China established the long-term goal of developing industries that are globally competitive under the country’s control, hence increased pressure on workforce members. It has then become a key priority to develop and attract human capital with which programs are being carried out to appeal to well-educated and skilled individuals. While the number of students and scholars in China has increased, there still remains the issue on human capital development which has been mainly attributed to inadequate funds. Japan Changes in Japan’s industrial relations context have mostly been characterized by the labor market and globalization with which considerable layoffs have been evident. Globalization has been able to weaken the economic institutions of Japan that were once considered as the foundation of Japan’s stable economy (Sato and Arita, 2004). The layoffs experienced by white-collar workers suggest the disintegration of certain Japanese management practices, including the wage system based on age and the long-term employment system. Factories that are transferred to foreign countries also indicate the changes experienced in the relationships between large Japanese companies and subcontractors. Technological change has also led to advancements in information technology and communication, thereby bringing about changes in organizational policies and international standards. Consequently, such progress has increased the expectations from worker performance and productivity. Industrial relations and the changes experienced in such context have involved the expansion of exports and local production, although such transitions have brought about increased demands among workforce members which can have a considerable impact on their health, wellbeing and safety. Effects of Changes in Industrial Relations on Health and Safety It is evident that changes in the industrial relations context, particularly globalization trends and technological advancements, have made a significant influence on human rights, equity, and employment law. With more employment opportunities in non-conventional working environments, more individuals have become members of the workforce. Information technology and new production processes influenced by technological advancements have also increased manufacturing options and a shift from a blue collar employment to a white collar form of work organization has been demonstrated with which many countries, including China and Japan, have benefitted from. However, these changes have brought about uncertainty among workers and their communities with instability affecting the groups of individuals whose capability to handle new circumstances and meet new demands remain limited. Hence, these issues have led to the concern over occupational health and safety that has been considerably impacted by the changes in the industrial relations context. At macro level, for instance, such immediate changes that are evident though income inequalities have affected health by means of workers’ negative perceptions of being placed in the social hierarchy, thereby bringing about negative emotions that lead to poor health. Consequently, this also leads to reduced social cohesion and community involvement (Attanapola, 2005). In addition, the progress demonstrated through enhanced technology and increased capital along with work organization changes have been reported to outpace the current policies and interventions for the protection of employee health and safety (Kwon, 2002). Work carried out in manufacturing, agriculture, and mining industries have been linked to increasing rates of physical hazards and injuries. The development of electronic and chemical sectors along with the advancements evident in the transport and service industries have brought about new health risks, developed the spread of occupational risks as well as increased the interaction of employees with factors that contribute to illness, including environmental pollution. Aside from common and prevalent problems brought about by the demands of work, such as respiratory diseases, injuries, and trauma, employees nowadays also experience psychological stress and the adverse effects of using new technologies, including video display units. Due to the trends of globalization and continual technological advancements, work has been associated with high levels of pressure and having limited control over the surroundings, such as the content and scope of work, resulting to health and safety problems among employees as well as within the work environment. China Exports from China have brought about effective capacity for production as well as provided a means to allocate surplus labor in the country (Fu and Gao, 2007). However, the health of employees in export processing zones in China has not received adequate attention to identify the problems associated with trade regimes. With export processing zones, high levels of accidents attributed to the use of machines, along with chemical exposure and poor ventilation have contributed to ill health among workers. Levels of job stress are particularly high especially from the demands of production quotas or the insufficient control for overtime. Such relevant factors have brought about further pressure to carry out stressful work that affect employees’ physical and psychological wellbeing. Among women who also carry out tasks in the export processing zones, reproductive health can also be adversely affected. While the export processing zones established in China may bring about positive outcomes in the society in terms of wage levels, inclusion of females in the workforce, provision of informal employment, upgrading of skills through training and increased focus on corporate social responsibility, the concerns on workplace health and safety brought about by the changes in industrial relations still have not been completely addressed. Production systems in China have necessitated the contributions of migrant workers, although increased trade as well as financial flows also added new groups of migrant workers, such as informal sector traders. Reports have indicated that such occurrences have led to certain problems with regards to identifying former migrant workers and pay compensation for health conditions (Biao, 2004). For instance, there have been numerous occurrences of unreported cases of respiratory and psychological illnesses among migrant workers in China’s rural areas. While the macro-economic effects of migration in China have been documented, such as industrial development, increased agricultural efficiency, and reduction of rural labor, there remains the concern of migration and formation with which human resource development and improvement have received less attention. On a positive note, migration can be utilized as a means of improving human capital with which migrant workers can obtain new competencies, and acquire access to various services, such as for education and health, for their families. However, studies have indicated the harmful outcomes of migration on human resource development. For example, migrant workers in China have been show to suffer excessive exploitation in the workplace; moreover, there are limited social security measures for the workers’ protection, thereby leading to adverse consequences on the migrants’ health and wellbeing (Hesketh, Ye, Li, and Wang, 2008). Nonetheless, a number of migrants also self-reported of good health and basic yet favorable living conditions for urban workers. It was concluded that unhealthy living conditions and unresponsiveness to health conditions may make migrant workers susceptible to poor health, hence the need for increased focus on health care for migrants in China (Hesketh et al., 2008). Japan In Japan, changes in the workforce, such as the feminization of labor, have also contributed to the issues on employment patterns influencing employee health and safety. Women are likely to be adversely affected by the changing work patterns and environment as they carry out unstable production activities and have been expected to work longer hours, combining both employment and household work (Shimomitsu and Odagiri, 2000). According to estimates, 30% of female part-time workers in the manufacturing industry have worked the same number of hours as those of full-time employment. Aside from consuming the same number of hours, these part-time employees also performed similar tasks and operations (Broadbent, 2002). Aside from low income and monotonous work, women employees, especially part-time workers, have also been reported to have limited control over their work’s content and pace. Thus, while globalization has resulted into new patterns of production which required the need of women in the workforce, going against the traditional gender roles, and enabling females to have opportunities for higher income, such changes have also brought the increased occupational risks as well as increased stress in relation to work. In addition, there has also been evidence that employees in who worked in stressful working environments characterized by high levels of demands along with low levels of control over duties tend to demonstrate unhealthy behaviors and adopt inappropriate lifestyles. In Japan, rural workers who experienced a high level of psychological demands were linked to alcohol drinking and heavy smoking whereas job stress and low level of job control were related to decreased consumption of healthy food (Tsutsumi, 2003). On the whole, new production processes in Japan have led to decreased work safety and increased occupational risks. Implications While the changes in industrial relations in China are not irreversible, its adverse outcomes on workforce members and the work environment as a whole can be addressed by fostering a society that is people-oriented, characterized by accord (Yu, 2009). Therefore, this indicates the need for unitarism with which companies perceive their management and employees as an integrated system, sharing a common goal and focusing on mutual involvement and cooperation. Moreover, such unitarism approach suggests a paternalistic manner of managing workforce members that requires loyalty from all. Hence, in order to accomplish goals in relation to the enhancement of workplace health and safety, a common goal and purpose must be shared not only by a number of organizations but among the national and global community as well. Although the pluralist approach to industrial relations may not be completely appropriate for addressing globalization concerns and workplace health and safety issues, the intrinsic conflict of interest that it emphasizes between an employer and its employees is highly evident in the findings with regards to Chinese and Japanese employment relations. This conflict of interest exists in labor markets that have inadequacies, thereby bringing about a bargaining issue among stakeholders as they have different interests (Budd, Gomez, and Meltz, 2004). Moreover, employment outcomes are typically based on various surrounding elements which influence the bargaining power of stakeholders, including employees. Therefore, such employment relationship has brought about certain issues with regards to resource allocation and policy implementation which greatly affect the relationships between employees and their employers, such as the case of globalization outcomes on workplace practices for employee health, wellbeing and safety. Nonetheless, decision making is then influenced by social norms, emotions, values, cognitive limitations, fairness, and concern for others. As companies are expected to provide just treatment to their employees through equal income and opportunities, access to health care, and proper human resource management, they are likely to identify and address concerns relating to workload, employment opportunities, and employee wellbeing and security. As rapid production changes and demands for trade brought about by changes in industrial relations have had a considerable impact on the labor force, there is a great need to adopt work environment standards and establish work safety culture. A form of management system that is highly capable of carrying out workplace surveillance and workplace health management along with adherence to international standards for employee health and safety are of equal importance as well. Increased flow of products and services together with increased processes conducted across the country entails efficient interaction between workplace health and overall public health. As workers’ difficulties in dealing with workplace health outcomes remain critical, such goals may not be accomplished if employees themselves are unable to have control over their work process. Trends that involve the implementation of new processes, output-related pay, along with unstable contracts can reduce the ability of employees to have control over their working environment. While unions may obtain benefits from the allocation of information and international pressures for standardized workplace health and safety practices, they may come across certain challenges in implementing such benefits owing to the limited access of employees to unions. Opportunities for workplace health improvements that are brought about by globalization have still been outweighed by the changes in health costs for employees in the form of unstable employment, income inequality, and weak systems for social protection. This challenge is especially evident among women, migrant workers, and individuals in an unstable employment. While global standards call for employers to identify and compensate for workplace injuries and health conditions, lack of detection, prevention, and reparation can contravene such principle. Conclusion While changes in the industrial relations context have increased economic opportunities for both China and Japan, findings still indicate the issues of workplace health and safety that is put at risk owing to new trends and advancements. Globalization has emphasized the need to increase production processes and expectations of workforce performance whereas new technology has reduced the need for human labor, hence reduced opportunities. Such changes have taken their toll on the physical and psychological health and wellbeing of employees. As a basic prerequisite, efforts should be increased towards understanding the consequences of economic reforms and changes in standards in order to protect workers’ safety and health. While public and private sector organizations should be called for setting appropriate standards and demonstrate strong enforcement, there is also a need for international cooperation to be exhibited with regards to promoting a safety culture at work. However, protection systems that are implemented in countries who suffer the adverse consequences of the changes in industrial relations may not completely address the health concerns brought about by low-quality and unstable jobs. Therefore, the main focus should be on the source of the problem. As health problems are often brought about by demanding production processes, the actual production process should be facilitated to meet the goals of supporting workforce health and safety not only with regards to economic development but in the overall health and development of human resources as well. References Attanapola, C. (2005). Experiences of globalization and health in the narratives of women industrial workers. 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Retrieved from: www.socialresponsibility.biz/discuss0906.pdf Read More