Development of International Economic Organizations - Coursework Example

Introduction: The Period of the Great Depression from the late 1920s through World War II was characterized by isolation, protectionism, and fierce nationalism. The economic turmoil and political instabilities and difficulties of the period resulted in no serious economic integration until the war ended. From the devastation a spirit of cooperation gradually emerged in Europe (Lavenex & Schimmelfennig, 2009). The first step in this regional cooperation effort was the establishment of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948 to administer Marshall Plan aid from the United States. Although the objective of the OEEC was limited to economic reconstruction following the war, its success set the stage for more ambitious integration plan (Eberlein and Kerwer, 2004). In 1952, six European countries which includes some of the countries like West Germany, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Italy, and Luxembourg) joined in establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The main objective of the ECSC was to form a common coal, steel, and iron ore for member countries. These basic industries were rapidly revitalised into competitive and efficient producers. The stage was again set for further cooperation efforts (BBC News, 2006a). In the year 1957, Treaty of Rome established the EEC (European Economic Community). Afterwards in 1967, ECSC and EEC as well as the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) were merged to form the European Community (EC). The main plan behind the treaty was to improve the mobility of goods and services as well as the labor and capital in order to prosper the economic situation of the region. The founding members’ envisioned that with the successful integration of European Union, it would improve the economic power of the country (BBC News, 2006b) and from that point of time, the integration of countries in the European region actually started and laid the platform. Some countries were however hesitant and unwilling to embrace motivated integrative efforts of the treaty. Thus, in 1960 a looser integrative scheme was endorsed by eight countries by the name of European Free Trade Agreement (EFTA). In this association Barriers to trade among member countries were dismantled, although each country maintained its own policies with non member states. Since that time WFTA has lost much of its original significance due to its members joining the European Union (EU) (Parkes, 2008). There were different reasons that prompted Europeans to take action like the increasing dissatisfaction with the progress of integration and threats faced from countries like Japan and United States because of increasing globalization. A policy paper published in 1985 now known as the 1992 White Paper exhaustively identified the remaining barriers to the four freedom and proposed means of dismantling them. It listed 282 specific measure designed to make four freedom reality (Soysal, 2012). Progress towards the main objective of free mobility of goods and services is achieved to a great extent from a standard approach to an approach that is recognized mutually. In order to achieve the goal of free movement of capital within the European Union, countries need to take few measures. These measures include (European Commission Home Affairs, 2012): 1. People in the EU should be allowed to trade within the European Union region without having any kind of restriction. 2. The regulations governing banks as well as other kinds of financial institutions need to be harmonized. 3. In addition, merger and acquisitions will be regulated by the EU rather than by national government. 4. Securities should be tradable from country of EU to another country of EU. A key aspect of free trade in services is the right to compete fairly to obtain government contracts. The treaty calls for economic and monetary union and a move towards political union with common foreign and security policy. As the integration process started and years later, things started looking good for several European countries. People were allowed to move easily from one European state to another though with some restrictions and because of this reason, immigration of people started and people started moving from one state to another. Also people from different parts of the world that have shifted or relocated themselves in European countries also shifted from one state to another and all this created several problems but on the other hand it also created new opportunities. But the role of European Union became highly important in managing the overall immigration and this report analyses how much EU immigration policies implemented by the European Union are effective regarding European Integration. Eu Economic Integration: In order to create a true economic union, it is important to integrate the economic policies and have a free movement of goods and services along with the movement of labor and capital from one country to another. Under the economic union, member countries would synchronise the monetary and fiscal policies. Also as a common currency would be used by all members therefore would also be helpful. It is clear that the creation of an economic union would need countries to give up their national sovereignty to a great extent to supranational authorities in communitywide institutions like the European parliament. In addition, moves should be made towards a political union with common foreign and security policy, as well as judicial cooperation (Johnston, 2007). There are five main institutions that govern the framework of European Union (Parkes, 2008): 1. The European Commission: the EU's executive organ 2. The European Parliament: the legislative organ of the Union 3. The Council of Ministers 4. The Court of Justice 5. The Court of Auditors 6. European Central Bank The Union through these institution leads to the formation of a supranational entity. Countries that are the members of European Union have delegated part of their national sovereignty to European Union Institutions. European Union functions with the main principle of ‘subsidiarity’ which is the characteristic of most of the federal systems. Subsidiarity represents jurisdiction for policies that lower level of governments like the regional, national or local government might not be able to manage in an effective manner (Parkes, 2008). The Commission plays the role of coming up with legislations regarding administrative issues, and ensures that all agreed upon treaties are working smoothly or not and whether the institutional framework laid is operating effectively or not. The European Commission has to run independent investigations and take legal actions against individuals, companies, or member countries that come under the EU’s rules and regulations. The commission plays a role in setting a budget for the consortium and break international trade negotiations for the union (Parkes, 2008). There are 20 commissioners in the European Commission and the president of the European Commission is appointed through the mutual consent of the participating governments in discussion with the parliament. The president is elected for five years period. Not more than two Vice-Presidents are appointed from the group of Commissioners. The actions taken by the commissioners are in the interest of the union. Each commission is assigned one policy area or more than one policy areas and there is a small team of aides or small cabinet that assist (Wiesbrock, 2011). The Court of Justice is located in Luxembourg. It is the consortium’s "Supreme Court". Their main duty is to make sure that implementation is appropriate and is done correctly by all EU institutes and by each member states. There are 15 judges in the court and each member has one judge which has been appointed for a renewable term of six years. There are 626 members in the European Parliament, elected through an EU-wide election for a period of five-years. The tenure of the president of Parliament is two and a half year (Rosenow, 2009). Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) form group or associations based on political motives instead of national interests. The Council of Ministers enforces EU laws in the region, taking actions based on the proposed that have been submitted by the commission. After Maastricht Treaty, the name of this group has been changed to Council of EU. The objective of each ministers of the member state is to work in the Union best interest rather than individual country’s interest (Parkes, 2008). Court of auditors possesses the powers to analyse the legitimacy of revenues and expenses and the reliability of the financial management of European Union budget. There are 15 members in the court of auditors belonging from 15 Member States and appointed for a six-year term. They are independent and have specific expertise in auditing of financial statements and financial reports (Parkes, 2008). Economic and financial matters of EU are managed by the European Central Bank and it is their responsibility. It objectives are to manage money supply, implementation of common currency goals and protect the union from financial crisis (Guild, Groenendijk, and Carrera, 2009). Opportunities Arising out of Economic Integration: Regional Economic Integration brings with it the following potential opportunities which can improve the economic situation of the EU as well as of each member state (Parkes, 2008): The Union of separate countries makes larger markets and it improves the trading opportunities along with increased competition which in effect reduces the prices for end consumers to take advantage off. There are political perspectives of REI as well according to which security as well as the stability of the region is assured. Helps to increase the bargaining powers of participating states in international negotiations Enhance financial collaboration in different projects in different member states Regional Economic Integration is a complex process and the integration process could only be successful if certain conditions are satisfied. Some of the main conditions are as follows (Baldwin-Edwards, 1997): Structural stability Rule of law Institutional capacities both at the regional as well as national levels are equally significant for proper infrastructure and macro-economic stability Another important factor is the willingness of the country to give up part of national sovereignty All the members of Regional Economic Integration process should be convinced that they would be benefitted from the integration. European Immigration Policy: European Union directs towards improvements in the movement from one European region to another and doing so, creating more opportunities as well as challenges. Common migration policy of member states of European Union would allow them to seize these opportunities and at the same time tackling the challenges being faced effectively. There are serious steps taken towards developing a common immigration policy which has solidarity and responsibility as its founding stone. If achieved that it would lead to a valuable success to the economic development and performance of European Union in the long run (Parkes, 2008). The policy aims to establish a solid framework of legal migration, taking in to full consideration the fact of integrating in the host societies. The EU encourages entrance of different immigrants like highly qualified employees who are allotted who are allotted EU Blue Card Directive, students and researchers. To these individuals the procedure for family reunification and permanent resident is provided (Borzel, 1999). Since December 2011, Single Permit Directive has been adapted and because of this, rights have been given to non European Union workers living in the European Union State. Currently, there are different commission proposals regarding the entry and residence of part time and seasonal workers are being discussed. The main objective is to make the overall migration process simpler and provide the migrants clear rights regarding employment. In addition to this, a single status for people who are non European Union’s nationals have been given by Long-Term Residence Directive the rights to live in European Union states for at least 5 years therefore creating a legal rights of being treated equally in different European Union states (Börzel, Tanja & Risse, 2003). European Union approach to the migration of people also deals with the issues related to integration. In order to maximise the opportunities it is important to have successful integration of migrants into their host society. Successful integration would also be significant to understand the potential of developing the European Union because of immigrations. Considering these aspects in mind, European Union is encouraging the European cooperation to expand different approaches that are common as well as exchange information at European Union level (Caviedes, 2004). Irregular migration is another important issue that needs to be addressed in order to have a sustainable as well as reliable policy approach. Different steps have been taken by the European Union in order to manage these issues for instance, they target firms and employers that recruit undeclared migrant employees and try to gain benefits from such undocumented people (Parkes, 2008). Another important aspect of common European Union approach towards migration is by building dialogues and forming partnerships with different countries of origin and transit (Caviedes, 2004). Problems encountered by European Union with regards to its immigration policy: Although the free movement is the basic right of every resident of European Union but it is important to manage the immigration pressures in an effective manner as well as encourage the entry of labors having different skills lawfully. Countries like Spain, Greece and Italy are fighting to handle many illegal immigrants as people from developing countries are immigrating. This is another issue as illegal immigrants are able to find work in countries at the northern side of Europe like United Kingdom and France (Geddes, 2003). A low birth rate and ageing population of Europe supports the notion that in the coming years the region will fall short of skill labor and therefore will resort to the services of immigrant labor. It has been estimated that if the same ratio of immigrates continue, then Europe would be having 50 million fewer workers by the end of 2060. However, if this is not the case then there would be almost 110 million fewer workers in comparison to today. It has also been projected that by the end of 2020, the shortage of labor would be around one million only in the health care industry and therefore, immigrants coming from different areas could fill these shortages (Gibney & Hansen, 2005). Measures envisaged for illegal immigrants: European parliament has approved a return direct and it has been estimated that this would be enforced in the laws in next two years or so. This would be applicable across European Union countries apart from United Kingdom and Ireland. The government of United Kingdom believed that directive would not be beneficial in making it easier for immigrants to return. EU legislation would only be applied when the decision to deport the individual who is an illegal immigrant has been taken however, the final decision would be taken by the country whether it would like to accept or deport the immigrant. The main objective of the European Union is to create a Common European Asylum System. At the moment the extent of protection afforded asylum seekers differ a lot from one European Union member to another. The leaders representing different countries of Europe have demanded European Commission to have common guarantees by having a single asylum process by 2012 (Gibney & Hansen, 2005). There is a need for highly skilled labors in the Europe Union as it has been highlighted by the European Commission and European Commission believes that the Blue Card scheme would be helpful in solving the problem. Firms in Europe claim that they are not able to fill the job vacancies. The changes and the long term demographic trends in the European Union pose threats and they reveal that the situation would become worse in future as the birth rate is by and large low in the region and ageing population would create additional gaps in the demand and supply of labor. 1.7% employees working at the highly qualified position in the overall employment scenario of EU are from non-EU countries. In comparison to this, there are 9.9% people working in highly level positions in Australia. The same ratio is 7.3% in Canada whereas the same ratio has a figure of 3.2% in United States. The Blue Card Scheme of EU has been aimed to rival the Green Card of United States and the main objective is to attract highly skilled labour to countries in European Union. People holding the blue card would be given equal importance and treatment as of nationals in different parts of EU and therefore it would encourage them to bring their families to such countries as well. Such people would also be allowed to move from one member of EU to another member however there are certain conditions that must be met (Grabbe, 2006). The rationale behind EU intervention in immigrant integration: New measures would help EU countries better manage the flow of immigrants, meet their need for new workers and prevent abuses. The work on this policy is important because there is disparity of living standards between different countries comprising the European Union. With EU’s intervention in this matter the European Union is trying to ensure free movement of goods, services, factors of production, labour and creation of fair competition. Since Europe will soon be engulfed with shortage of skilled labour and free work force, therefore it is of utmost importance that the Union develops standardised set of immigration rules. These rules should be clear in their application and should swiftly address the work force issues and illegal immigrant issues. The policies should not only resolve the problem of immigrant and work force but also should bridge the gap between the disparities in living standards of different countries of the European Union. Another reason for the Unions intervention is to enforce consistent rules and regulations in all the countries of the union (Guiraudon, 2000). Another grow discontent between the participants countries in the European Union is the acts undertaken by one member country with regards to its immigration policy, that undermines the immigration policies of other member nations. The aspect of the topic under consideration is the flexibility or relaxation of the immigration policy of one member state that leads to the settlement of illegal immigrate in that state causes havoc for the entire system. The argument present over here is that when one member state allows an immigrant to stay in their country, this will allow the immigrant to take the benefits that is arising out of the integration process and are basically aimed to provide benefits to the natives. Another problematic issue is that of asylum seekers, who are growing day by day in the region. The current policy with regards to asylum seekers is having a profound impact on their integration with the local community and thereby enjoyment of the benefits. Thus a serious need is arising which is demanding the creation of asylum seekers profile; this should include the reason for asylum, entry and admission policy and integration and return policy (Lahav, 2004). Members states of the European Union, the Council and the European Commission along with the European Parliament have agreed to have one common vision to develop the European Union. EU has been having partnership with different developing countries in order to promote peace, human rights issues, gender equality, justice, democracy, freedom, good governance and other basic rights. European Union has been focusing on improving its aids and effectiveness of its aid and it has been the largest donor of official development assistance in the world. The role of Policy Coherence for Development is critical in order to reinforce the contribution of European Union to developing countries towards achievement of Millennium Development Goals. The basic objective has been to make the most of positive influence of these policies on associated states as well as to correct incoherence (Tholen, 2005). EU’s Foreign and Security Policy agenda: The EU has a unified view with regards to its foreign and security policy, according to the policy makers this unified sense enables it to speak firmly and decisively on world affairs. Lisbon Treaty introduced different changes in the year 2009 that made it easier for European Union to become more active as well as coherent in its approach. Appointing EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy was also one of the changes that was introduced in the treaty. His responsibility includes coordinating with the members of EU in order to devise and implement the foreign policy. Civilian and military staff along with the European External Action Service assists the High representative (Vink, 2002). Member states of European Union have shown commitment to have a common foreign security policy across different countries in EU. The main aim of this security and defense policy is to strengthen the external ability of the European Union to act with the resources of the civilians as well as the military in Conflict Prevention and in Crisis management (Vink, 2002). EU’s socio economic agenda: The socio economic policies of the Union have been devised to make sure that European Union is able to respond in an effective manner to the upcoming social and economic challenges. On 2 July 2008, this notion was accepted by the European Commission. Through these policies technological changes, globalisation and ageing population were addressed by the Union Commissioners.  The policies were aimed to facilitate people adapt to the varying circumstances as well as keep pace with the new world order (Tholen, 2005).  The policies developed in order to cater to the social agenda of EU are focused on the creation of more opportunities for the residents of the EU countries by providing them more access to the high quality services (Guild, Groenendijk, and Carrera, 2009). The revised social agenda aims to accomplish the following goals (Tholen, 2005): Improving the labor market by creating better and more jobs Develop new skills in the work force Encourage social mobility and remove obstacles in its way Bring health reforms that support longer and healthier life Fighting against poverty and social exclusion Combating against discrimination as well as encouraging gender equality The European Union is making use of all its resource and use a mixture of different policies to achieve the objectives set out in their social agenda (Tholen, 2005):  The legislation of EU is working on different proposals in order to tackle the issues related to discriminations in the labor market, improving the patients’ rights in different countries health care industries as well as improve the performance of European Works Councils. Social dialogue is undertaken which bring together employees as well as employers to make the most of the opportunities that are being offered by the European Social Dialogue. Collaboration between different EU member states is greatly emphasised to enhance social protection as well as social inclusion. EU is mobilising its funds through EU’s Structural Funds and the European Globalisation Adjustment Fund. The objectives of these funds are to increase employment and social solidarity. Involvement consultation authorities Partnership, dialogue and communication methods are being nurtured to promote the participation and discussion of non-governmental organisations, regional and local authorities and other stakeholders of the Union. Making sure that all EU policies encourage further opportunities, access and solidarity. All policies are directed towards exploring new plans and projects for the improvement of society as well as the labor market. Economic crisis and its impact on some of the European Union Countries: The objective of this topic is to explore the impact of economic issues on immigration patterns of the member countries of the European Union. Czech Republic: This country managed itself quit will during the recession and came out from its negative consequences. Czech not only managed to see of the recession but also invested more capital during this phase in immigrant integration programs. However, the immigrants were negatively affected by the economic downturn despite government efforts due to which immigrant had a lower figure of unemployed compared to the natives. During this period the government offered a voluntary return home program for the immigrant but for those who decided to stay, the government mobilised all its institutions to help them to integrate in the society. They were given stipend and reimbursement by the government for job loss (Collett, 2011). Denmark: The country faced a short spell of recession and came out from its consequences very quickly. However, this period was very troubling for the immigrants whose unemployment figures swelled tremendously. In Denmark there are mixed opinion existing with regards to the integration of the immigrants with the local population. Different political parties endorse different perspectives and desire different policy measure. In this country entry of immigrants is linked with the demand in the labor market. The policies regarding immigrants have remained constant, but the immigrants are not receiving the same kind of treatment as Czech Republican (Collett, 2011). Germany: The economic recession was handled by Germany with great success and thus after this recession an unprecedented form of German economy emerged that created a strong position for the country on the economic front. The country continues to invest heavily on immigrant integration programs and this entails investment in language, education and labor market. The Germans are very interested in this integration and unlike other countries are especially concerned about the depleting human resource of Europe (Collett, 2011). Ireland: The country experienced the worst for of recession, since its economy is U.S sponsored, so the recession coupled with banking crisis lead the Irish government to revisit its integration policy. The immigration levels also drop despite of heavy concessions to the immigrants. Both immigrants and natives faced the same treatment of recession. Both parties lost jobs that were connected with construction industry. Although, Ireland was very sincere in its efforts to integrate the immigrant into its economic system, but due to unprecedented circumstances it had to cut its budget spending that addressed the integration effort (Collett, 2011). Netherland: This country was also hit severely by recession, and saw a dramatic cut in spending that was aimed to nurture the integration process. This spending was further cut when after elections a coalition government was formed, which halted the integration process. The new coalition government was very conservative with regards to the country’s immigration and integration policy. These measures seriously hampered the integration of the immigrant population with the native population and drew a thick line between them (Collett, 2011). Portugal: Despite heavy cuts to the integration budget, the Portugal government has remained committed to the revival of the immigrant population. This commitment has been shown through the providing of easy access to the labor market to the immigrants. In Portugal also this topic of “Immigrant integration” is raising hot debates. But all in all the country is investing in immigrant literacy program, entrepreneurship and mentoring programs and providing social assistance to immigrants so that they may not get engulfed in extreme poverty. The country has also simplified family reunification process and has allowed immigrant to extend their stay if valid circumstance prevail (Collett, 2011). Spain: The events arising after the economic crisis and there severity affected negatively Spain’s integration efforts. The immigrants received a severe blow not only at the labor market front but also in the process of their inflow. Other than this government seriously curtailed there spending on the integration process. The country has shifted from the reception policy to dropping policy were they do not tolerate at all any illegal immigrant (Collett, 2011). Sweden: Despite the country experienced an economic slowdown, but it stayed firm to its commitment of integrating the immigrants with its local population. The country not only continued with its earlier policy but also invested in the labor market to create new opportunities for new arrivals of immigrants. Sweden did comparatively well as compared to other European states during the time of recession and now the economy of the country is on the path of growth (Collett, 2011). United Kingdom: The country was very badly hit by the recession. As a result of this the government adopted a very conservative policy towards many things. Not only did the government reduce public spending but it dealt with the issue of immigrants with iron hands. Integration programs suffered badly as a result of this posture of the government. The government stopped supporting the community support program and also revised its immigration policy. In this revision all those clauses were added that discourage the immigrants to consider U.K as a viable immigration spot (Collett, 2011). Conclusion: With regional integration comes unrestricted free trade, specialisation in the production and delivering of goods and services and most importantly productivity and efficiency. The main result is to have greater world production in comparison to what it would have been with the restrictions on trade. Integration opens a country to free trade as well as it encourages economic growth. This nonexistence of barriers leads to the free movement of goods, services, and factors of production (labor, material and capital). Though there is also an opposite side to the argument, regional economic integration can also be considered as an attempt that would be having benefits from free trade and free investment. Policy and coordination harmonisation problems are problems for different countries that are looking for agreement (Guild, Groenendijk, and Carrera, 2009). As the number of countries involved would increase, therefore it would make it harder to reach an agreement. Thus, efforts should be made at the regional economic integration so that the gains from free trade and investment are exploited. Regardless of the strong economic and political arguments in support of integration, the overall process of integration can never be considered as easy for its participants. Two main reasons for this are: the cost associated with economic integration. Although, it has several benefits, but there are certain groups that would lose because of economic integration (Guild, Groenendijk, and Carrera, 2009). The most prominent groups amongst losers are unskilled workers, agriculturist and immigrants. A second impediment to integration arises due to the notion of loss of national sovereignty to supernatural institutions. Concerns with regards to this issue arise as close economic integration would demand giving up of control over key economic issues to a certain extent. This is the most significant hurdle in the way of full economic integration. European Union has taken several steps in order to make sure that opportunities in different European countries are properly capitalised. With more people relocating from one state to another, unemployment issues have been created however with different governments of European Countries have taken steps and these steps have been plausible and reasonable. List of References Baldwin-Edwards, M 1997, ‘The emerging European immigration regime: some reflections on implications for southern Europe.’ Journal of Common Market Studies, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 497-519. BBC News, 2006a, Europe diary: Romanian emigration. Available at [Accessed 9 April 2012] BBC News, 2006b, Brits Abroad: Country-by-country. Available at [Accessed 9 April 2012] Borzel, T 1999, ‘Towards Convergence in Europe? Institutional Adaptation to Europeanization in Germany and Spain’, Journal of Common Market Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 573-596. Börzel, Tanja & Risse, T 2003, ‘Conceptualizing the Domestic Impact of Europe’ in Kevin Featherstone & Claudio. M. Radaelli (eds.) The Politics of Europeanization, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 57 – 83. Caviedes, A 2004, ‘The Open Method of Co-ordination in Immigration Policy: A Tool for Prying Open Fortress Europe?’ Journal of European Public Policy, Vol. 11, No. 2: 289 – 310. Clark, N 2012, ‘Information effects and mass support for EU policy control’, European Union Politics. 13 (1). Collett, E 2011, Immigrant Integration in Europe in a Time of Austerity. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Available from http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/TCM-integration.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2012] Eberlein, B and Kerwer, D 2004, ‘New Governance in the European Union: A Theoretical Perspective’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 121–142 European Commission Home Affairs 2012, ‘Towards a common European Union migration policy’, Europa. Available at [Accessed 11 April 2012] Geddes, A 2003, ‘Still Beyond Fortress Europe? Patterns and Pathways in EU Migration Policy’, Queen’s Papers on Europeanisation, No.4. Gibney, & Hansen, R 2005, Immigration and Asylum: from 1900 to the present, ABC-CLIO, Inc., California. Grabbe, H 2006, The EU’s Transformative Power-Europeanization Through Conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke and New York. Guild, E, Groenendijk, K and Carrera, S 2009, Illiberal Liberal States, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, London. Guiraudon, V 2000, ‘European Integration and Migration Policy: Vertical Policymaking as Venue Shopping’, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 38, No.2, pp. 251 – 71. Johnston, P 2007, ‘Emigration soars as Britons desert the UK’ Telegraph. Available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1569400/Emigration-soars-as-Britons-desert-the-UK.html [Accessed 1 April 2012] Lahav, G 2004, Immigration and Politics in the New Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Lavenex, S, & Schimmelfennig, F 2009, ‘EU rules beyond EU borders: theorizing external governance in European politics’, Journal of European Public Policy, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 791-812. Parkes, R 2008, Immigrant Integration meets European Integration. Working paper, Berlin: Research Unit EU Integration. Available from http://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/arbeitspapiere/Immigrant_Update2_KS.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2012] Rosenow, K 2009, ‘The Europeanisation of Integration Policies’, International Migration, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 133–159. Soysal, Y 2012, ‘Citizenship, immigration, and the European social project: rights and obligations of individuality’, The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 63, no.1, pp. 1–21. Tholen, B 2005, ‘The Europeanization of Migration Policy-The Normative Issues’, European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol. 6 , pp. 323-351. Vink, M 2002, ‘Negative and Positive Integration in European Immigration Policies’, European Integration Online Papers, Vol. 6, No.13. Wiesbrock, A 2011, ‘The Integration of Immigrants in Sweden: a Model for the European Union?’, International Migration, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 48–66. Read More