The Representation of Ethnic Minorities in the UK Labour Market - Essay Example

Under representation of ethnic minorities in the UK labour market Introduction Most people go to foreign countries in search of a home and a place towork. While the trend a few decades ago was to work in a foreign country, earn money and then return home, the new trend is to try and live in an alien country and become part of the new culture. The urge to live in a foreign country may be encouraged by better economic facilities available to the immigrants and their families. However, it is often seen that ethnic minorities are not evenly represented in the country. This can be due to many reasons such as negative stereotypes, prejudice, and other social and cultural factors. In many countries it may be seen that ethnic minorities are often constrained to work for low wages or are involved in menial jobs. More often than not they have to work in such situations in which it will be difficult to find a working member of the majority community. This is the case in the UK as well, where ethnic minorities are unevenly distributed in the labour force that is available to the country. Even within the domains that are available to the ethnic minorities, it may be seen that not all of them land the same job. For example, there may be specific jobs or domains that maybe available to a specific ethnic group. Similarly, there may be jobs that are not accepted by some ethnic minorities due to their belief culture and ideology. It is an established fact that ethnic minorities face obstacles in the labour market of the UK when compared to the whites. In spite of the fact that the government of the United Kingdom has taken measures to remove any obstacles that ethnic minorities may face in the labour market, it is a fact that ethnic minorities do not enjoy the same ease as the majority in securing jobs in the labour market. Historical background The historical background of ethnic minorities can offer a pointer to way they have developed over the years in the country. Since the UK had its presence in almost all developing nations as a colonizer, people who came to the UK had to face a significant amount of social restrictions that hindered their development. For example, African people were bought to the UK as part of the slave trade and they are still discriminated on the basis of their colour and race. Such people and their descendents were also restricted in the kind of industry in which they could engage in. As a result much of the menial jobs were reserved for this category of people, while the majority enjoyed better jobs with better prospects. The fallout of such a situation was that children of the minorities, except in some exceptions, were also constrained to continue with the jobs that their parents had to do. As a result social repression continued with a particular section of the society. Education Statistics suggest that education played a very important role in uplifting the ethnic minorities in the labour market. However, certain issues hindered the enthusiasm of ethnic minorities to attain better educational opportunities. For example, it was observed that students from lower socio-economic conditions lacked the necessary skills to attain better positions through the labour market. The learning pathways that students adopted also affected the way in which they approached education. For example, students from lower economic background usually will not have the requisite skills to apply for a top position in the labour market. At the same time, even students who possess better qualification were found to be diffident to apply for better positions. This is explained by the fact that people from lower economic conditions attached only lower importance to higher education and the increase in status associated with a job that could be achieved through better education (CREST, 1999). Statistics indicate that the necessary encouragement from a policy of compulsory education has been lacking in the UK. As a consequence, compulsory education has not been able to encourage people to look higher for better job prospects. Poverty It is easy to guess the origin of poverty because we can say that poverty could have originated in a place where there were class distinctions and regulation of labour. Only when labour is regulated and there are class variations does the need arise to hoard wealth. In addition, power is something that is synonymous with wealth and so when there is imbalance of power and wealth, poverty begins to take shape. Some of the oldest written records show that poverty could have had its origins in England where the difference between landlords and serfs could have encouraged the origin and establishment of poverty. The severe class differences that existed between the serfs and the landlords are a clear indication that poverty existed in the country since very old times [Dowe, 1999]. In fact Dowe (1999) believes that poverty was unknown in England before 1066 except those, which were caused by the occasional war, whose consequences were considered as part of war and not strictly as poverty in those days. However the Norman conquest that happened in 1066 set the stage for poverty in England and the differences that gradually developed between the Norman invaders who considered themselves superior to the people who inhabited the land gave rise to class differences and eventually poverty. Once the Barons became active in England in the thirteenth century onwards, poverty as a social reality began to take shape because the Barons levied taxes on their subjects, which in turn had to be given to the queen. So it would be apt to say even though it is ironic, that social order and governmental systems gave rise to poverty Poverty plays a very important role in deciding the educational facilities that are reachable by ethnic minorities. As mentioned before, most ethnic minorities are people who come to the UK in search of a better job and facilities. However, it must be noted that many of such people are ready to work in conditions that do not match up to the basic facilities that are enjoyed by the majority. This overbearing nature of poverty ensures that people continue to live in poor conditions. Many students of ethnic communities have to discontinue their studies because they are not able to sustain the high requirements of cash and effort that are needed to complete their education. In The Working Poor, Shipler (2004) examines the life of those people who live in what he describes as the shadow of prosperity. These are people who are utterly poor and are destined to live their lives in anticipation of riches. They are people who can and will work hard for their days earnings, but for whom fate has a different destiny. This is in sharp contrast to those people who are born rich and do not have to work hard to earn a living. Shipler observes that the lives of these people is so dependent on their financial status that a small change in their daily routine or even a small untoward incident can totally displace their lives and create a situation from which it is difficult for them to regain themselves. Shipler has taken care to highlight the case of many people who do not have a clue as to how they can save themselves from this mess that they are in. Many of them are ready to work hard or make sacrifices for the sake of their families and kids but it seems that a break does not come their way. Many have jobs that will not offer them any benefit in the long run and may even end abruptly. Many are desirous of government grants but do not know who or how they can be of help. Others have put themselves into traps set by other individuals or by the bureaucracy that exploits their situation. The global rise in economic recession has increased the level of poverty in the UK. In a 1999 survey, it was found out that 26% of British people were living in poverty [David Gordon et al, 2000]. Britain has its own economic problems that are compounded and regulated by international trade and development. Poverty also pushes people into a vicious cycle from which generations of ethnic minorities may find it difficult to escape. For example, poverty may good students from ethnic minorities to discontinue their education because they may have to work in order to support their family at a tender age. Even though the student may have the capacity to learn well, his/ her abilities are curtailed by poverty. In turn, the children of such a person also will not be able to access better education because of poverty. Hence alleviation of poverty is an important step that will go a long way in enhancing the kind of jobs that ethnic minorities will received from the labour market. Young members of ethnic communities in the UK are more attracted to the job market that provides specific jobs for them because of the lure of money. Youth wages are relatively high in the UK and therefore members of the ethnic community find it better to work than study. Stereotypes The term “stereotype” refers to a cognitive structure consisting of a category or label, and its corresponding traits. These traits are linked together into a coherent structure that resides in long-term memory and can become activated – ready for use – in subsequent judgments (Judd and Downing 1995). A stereotype is a repetitive form of something, which is without variation or change. A stereotype in sociology refers to notions or prejudices applied to objects or roles. Stereotype opinions may be based on past experiences or based on the tradition of a person. In most cases stereotypes are mental imagination, which may be true, or as in most cases false. Stereotyping is an innate quality of nature. Man as a natural being could have acquired this behaviour of classifying objects as ‘this’ and ‘that’ from his long standing relationship with nature. Often stereotypes are based on popularity of a particular subject. For example a comedian in films is usually accepted in future roles as a comedian only. This is because people expect a set of behaviour from a subject due to past experience. It becomes evident that stereotyping is done as part of the human intellect to classify an object. It becomes easy for us to relate with a subject once it has become classified, as belonging to a particular category. Stereotyping is a behavioural attitude. As a result it can occur without intent. A key feature of stereotyping is that they are cognitive images whose various traits are linked in interconnected in what is called as associative networks. Once a particular stereotype trait is activated, or brought to the conscious memory, the other parts of the stereotype may become available through a process of spreading activation across the associative network. Thus, it is possible that once a bad trait has been activated, it may activate another, more acceptable trait. In human societies stereotyping is seen in all communities. The influence of stereotyping comes to the fore when different ethnic groups interact with each other. The experience gained from this interaction is then transmitted to fellow members of the society who translate the information as a norm or belief. Stereotype opinions are available in any walk of life be it politics, education, relationships, sports etc. It is interesting to note that in any situation there are basically two groups of people: The positively stereotyped and the negatively stereotyped subjects. The positively stereotyped subjects are at an advantage while the other group has to cope up with the additional psychological burden. Claude Steele, Professor of social psychology at Stanford University describes in his interview the concept of "stereotype threat" as perceived by him and his colleagues [Steele]. He says that "stereotype threat" is a perception that could apply to us when we are negatively stereotyped. This makes the subject apprehensive about his behaviour because he does not want to conform to the opinion, which could have already been formed by his fellow counterparts. Such a mental preoccupation is sure to affect ones confidence, poise and productivity, particularly when someone plans to outperform his limitations. Cultural issues It can be effectively argued that the mass proliferation of one cultures values on another can have a widespread impact on economics, politics and social constructs. Although some scholars would argue that this process would occur as a natural consequence of the progression of any civilization, there are a number of periods throughout history that have demonstrated the powerful effect that one culture can have on another. Many cultural issues are very important factors that determine whether ethnic minorities attain the kind of jobs they aspire for through the labour market. Cultural issues are important both within the community as well as outside it. For example, it has been reported that many students belonging to ethnic minority communities are reluctant to learn in premier institutions in the UK. The reasons for such reluctance can range from harassment to a conscious decision to be close to one’s community members. Similarly, lack of equality is a serious issue that hinders the progress of ethnic minorities. Students from ethnic minorities often report lack of confidence and family support if they join higher centres of education. This means that ethnic minority families are not willing to allow their wards to join higher centres of education because of the inherent fear that their cultural values will be affected. When communities settle down in a foreign land, the settling process is quite problematic for the communities. For example as soon as a community steps into the UK, it will take a long time for it to adjust to the requirements and duties expected out of it. During this critical juncture, communities will exert a lot of pressure on the individual to conform to its laws than adhere to the new laws of the region. This cultural tug-of-war can be quite discouraging for people, especially youngsters who find it very difficult to adjust with the situation. Such people easily seek jobs in order to support themselves. In their quest for a job they may accept the jobs that are reserved for the lower strata of the society. This is a major reason for the creation of niche jobs for certain communities in the UK. It is natural phenomenon that modern ideas and interaction brings about so many changes that comes into conflict with the existing norms and belief systems of a society. In fact, the ability to assimilate productive changes and the capacity to discard beliefs that are detrimental to the interest of the society are the essential qualities of a good social order. If a society allows itself to be dominated by beliefs that are not in tune with the needs and aspirations of the changing times, one cannot say that it is a progressive society. On the other hand, it must also be said that a society that is open to change without considering the detrimental effects that such a change can make in the long run will not add quality to that society. Hence, ideally there needs to be a balance between age old ideas that form the foundation of the society on which modern progressive ideas needs to be implemented Social factors Equality as a social requirement is a very relevant topic of discussion that prompts much catharsis in our societies. However, over the years, it is repeatedly being proved that equality is an elusive quality that escapes us. If the inequality between the rich has been stronger in some epochs, the lack of equality between different genders, between races and cultures, and different peoples has always caused various problems throughout world history. In fact, most of the efforts of social reformers have been concentrated on ensuring equality among people. It is interesting to note that the fight for equality does not exclude even the most advanced of all nations, which simply points to the deep rooted social maladies that are inherent in our societies. Researchers have found that social inclusion in the UK may be affected by the inertia of the majority community to accept ethnic minorities. This is most prevalent in the job sector where there seems to be a prejudice that people belonging to the ethnic communities will not be able to perform their jobs well. As mentioned before, such a prejudice is partly fuelled by the fact that most ethnic minority communities were so far content to work with menial jobs. Though diversity is seen as a management challenge, in the increasingly globalized business environment it is really a management opportunity. However, as Dass and Parker observes, ‘…advantage comes not from diversity itself but rather from forging a link between the external environments fostering diversity and internal organizational systems that are capable of capitalizing on it’. (Dass and Parker: 1996, p.368). When managed and leveraged tactically diversity in the work place present multidimensional benefit to the organization. Cox and Blake (1991) suggests that effective diversity management can bring in competitive advantage to an organization in six areas such as cost, resource acquisition, marketing, creativity, problem-solving and organizational flexibility. (Cox and Blake: 1991 p.48). Organizations have adopted many methods considered appropriate and timely to deal with the issue of diversity of their workforces, however, most of them are today rated as ineffective though not unsuccessful. Assimilation strategy – integrating and conforming into the dominant culture—by creating an environment which is indiscriminate towards differences of colour, gender and culture was the most commonly adopted methodology for the management of diversity in organizations. And it was generally believed that assimilation ensured performance of all employees, irrespective of their differences by moulding them to adopt a common management style. Assimilation was also seen as an effective strategy towards eliminating the biases against the employees from cultural and ethnic backgrounds and other minorities at workplace as women, disabled and migrants from being considered for promotions and from racist or sexist assaults at the workplace. Thus assimilation essentially focused on the more important aspects or the knowledge and competence of employees. The fundamental premise of assimilation was that employees are to be treated equally. However, assimilation strategy has come under attack recently, with the global market place demanding its own place and position. Employees coming from diverse background are today unwilling to fit in to the dominant culture forced upon them by organizations as they remain unconvinced on the purpose of adopting the ideals of a ‘dominant’ culture, particularly when the values of that culture is not related to the business. The concept of diversity refers to the collective mixture of human differences along a given dimension. Dimensions of diversity among workforce members include gender, race, religion, culture, age, education level, sexual preference, profession, personality type, organizational or team tenure, functional background, political party, and other demographic socioeconomic characteristics. Diversity management in businesses and at the workplace involves capitalizing the productivity and creativity of all employees, regardless of the diversities. The management of diversity in the framework of organizational management poses very fundamental concerns to an organization, which are identified as below: - Capitalizing the capabilities and potential of new and existing employees - Ensuring compliance with both national or international legislative requirements - Minimizing the economic and social cost in dealing with diverse labour groups - Tapping the creativity of diverse work groups - Adopting the most beneficial and the best practice for the development and deployment of human resources Gender and family issues Gender and family issues also play a major role in determining the availability of good jobs for ethnic minorities in the labour market. For example, many Asian ethnic minorities are averse to sending their female children to school or for employment. When the community follows the same traditions in the UK, the community need to expect only lesser exposure an opportunities. In fact the number of underprivileged women in ethnic minority communities is high in the UK. A lot of literature is available that examines whether economic prosperity is a factor that encourages or discourages domestic violence. In fact many of the studies do prove that domestic violence and poverty are related and that poverty precipitates domestic violence. Studies by Metraux, S. & Culhane, D.P. (1999) prove beyond doubt that poverty and domestic violence are indeed related. The authors have noted that violence and poverty are part of a vicious cycle, each precipitating the other. In some cases women or men who cannot earn are often discarded by their family because the increased costs in sustaining a person who does not add to the financial worth of the family. Often they are discarded after intense maltreatment at home. Ethnic minorities and Small businesses in the UK The success of the business of the ethnic minorities is very conspicuous in the UK. Most of these businesses are small ones, which cater to the niche market of their own nationalities. The large number of minorities requires certain goods, particularly food items that are provided by these small enterprises. It must be said that the extended family concept of the minorities, particularly the Asians have been responsible for their spectacular growth in the country. The higher percentage of educated youngsters and the insecurity back at home are some of the major factors that have prompted them to do business and succeed. Most of the Asians and the Pakistanis who dominate the small businesses are people who have some experience in building a business back home. In contrast, the Blacks have not been able to see much success in business. In spite of the success the ethnic minorities have been able to manage in UK, they are not sure of their future and are worried that they have not been able to get the requisite support from the government The ethnic minorities are a very important group in the business environment of Britain. The ethnic minorities have established themselves in the small-scale sector of the country and provide valuable financial benefits to the economy. It is estimated that there are more than 3.5 million Britons of ethnic minority origin. The number comes close to approximately 5.5% of the UK population and it is expected to increase in the near future. It is expected that the number of ethnic minorities would soon be ten percent of the total UK population. In the business scene, minorities control seven percent of all the businesses in the UK and nine percent of all start-ups are owned by the minorities. (Author not known, 2002). These small businesses are becoming a major economic force in the UK. Considering the number of self-employed people, it is seen that sixteen percent of the ethnic minorities are self-employed while the percentage of self-employed whites is only ten percent. The major nationalities who are represented in the ethnic minority businesses are Indians, Pakistanis and the Chinese. The blacks have a below -average representation. The education levels of the non-whites are also interesting because it was seen that 36% of non-whites had a degree compared to 17% of whites. The reach of the business of the ethnic minorities is expected to increase in the future. A large number of business owners believe that the ethnic minorities will have a greater role to play in future. Even with the clear majority of business headed by ethnic minorities, they still believe that non-ethnic Britons discriminates against them. They foresee a situation in the future when they would have to face barriers to the expansion of their businesses. The feeling is echoed by a majority of ethnic businessmen who foresee a problem in the near future. Even a sizeable percentage of whites (39%) acknowledge that minorities will have barriers to their businesses in the near future. This has been one of the major reasons why a forum has been put into place, which looks into the affairs of the small-scale industries. The forum is called as the Ethnic Minority Business Advisory forum and was set up in July 2000. (Nigel, Griffiths 2002). Conclusion Ethnic minorities in the UK are misrepresented in the labour market due to a variety of reasons that have developed over the years. The government needs to do more to enhance the status of the ethnic minorities while helping them to preserve their cultural identity. Works Cited Judd, Charles M., & James W. Downing. (1995). Stereotypic Accuracy in Judgments of the Political Positions of Groups and Individuals. in Political Judgment: Structure and Process, ed. Milton Lodge and Kathleen M. McGraw. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Interview. Claude Steele, (1995). Secrets of the SAT. wgbh educational foundation. Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sats/interviews/steele.html CREST. (1999). Working paper, NO.69. Shipler David K. (2004). The Working Poor: Invisible in America. Knopf 1st edition, February, 2004. Cox, T., & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Academy of Management Executive, 5(3), 45 – 56. Dass and Parker. (1996). “Diversity: a strategic issue"" in Kossek and Lobel (eds.) Managing Diversity: human resources strategies for transforming the workplace, Blackwell Publishing Oxford. Metraux, S., & Culhane, D.P. (1999). Family dynamics, housing, and recurring homelessness among women in New York City homeless shelters, Journal of Family Issues. 20(3), 371-396. Read More