Economic Impact on Crime - Literature review Example

?Economic Impact on Crime Economic conditions impact significantly on the lives of people. Human survival is still very much founded on economic trade and relations with limited natural resources prompting individuals to trade goods with each other. Current economic conditions indicate that some individuals in some parts of the world do not have sufficient resources to support themselves. These people are below the poverty levels. Some of them perish from starvation or from health maladies which are borne out of inadequate health care and limited nourishment. Other individuals seek different ways to improve their economic conditions, and many of these individuals have proven successful. Unfortunately, illegitimate ways of seeking basic resources and of ensuring human survival have also been used. This may account for the fact that crimes are prevalent in areas with depressed economic conditions. The studies below shall present a literature review on the relationship between the economy and crime, how they impact on each other and mostly how depressed economic conditions lead to the high incidence of crime and how high crime rates can impact negatively on the economy. Review of related literature Before reviewing the studies discussing the relationship of crime and economic conditions, it is important to first establish global conditions relating the economy and crime. Based on the United Nations Global Pulse (2010), their analysis was based on a cross-national assessment which sought to investigate the possible impact of economic stress on crime. The UN report established that in times of economic crisis and non-crisis, economic conditions have a crucial role to play in the manifestation of crimes. Based on statistics and analysis from 15 countries, there are general associations which can be made between crime and economic conditions. During the 2008 to 2009 economic crisis, statistical modeling in countries assessed revealed that for countries which were considered under crisis, changes in criminal rates were also observed (UNGP, 2010). Violent property crimes, including robbery increased in incidence with up to a two-fold increase observed during economic crisis. A rise in homicide and motor vehicle theft was also observed. These findings seem to support the criminal motivation theory which indicates how economic stress may further increase the motivation for individuals to participate in illegal activities (UNGP, 2010). For the different countries compared by the UN, the combination of crime and economic predictors were evaluated and a major association between these elements was identified. The UN assessment cites issues seen during economic crisis like youth gangs, weapons availability, drugs and alcohol abuse, and the low visibility of law enforcement officers as factors which all impact on criminality during economic hardships. In the study by Aiginger (2010), the author compared the recent economic recession with the Great Depression which was seen following the First World War. The authors utilized new data set in order to evaluate the decrease in activity in the industrialized countries using seven activity indicators. Their data indicated that the recent crisis had the possibility of being another Great Depression, especially with the speed and decline seen within the first nine months of the recession. However, if it is to be assumed that another greater impact can be avoided, the decrease in the indicators would have to be smaller when compared to the Great Depression. This is true for the GDP, the employment rates, and for manufacturing profits. Differences in the degree of the crisis are expected in terms of differences in the policy reaction. In the Great Depression, fiscal policies were applied in order to manage budgets. However, the lower nominal interest rates led to higher and actual rates. Aiginger (2010) also indicates how the economic policy implemented during the recent crisis prevented the crisis from causing another period of depression. Baron (2008) discusses the importance of more attention being directed towards the variables which would relate unemployment with crime. It has been specifically suggested that the individual interpretation of the labor market has a significant role in terms of the responses made to it. The general strain theory implies that the impact of unemployment on crime is mediated by other elements. Moreover, unemployment is based on other elements which can sometimes lead to anger over unemployment and later leads to the commission of crime (Baron, 2008). The direct impact of unemployment on crime is mediated by financial dissatisfaction and limited employment searches. Anger over unemployment is also caused by the unfavorable subjective assessment of economic situations as well as a persistent attachment to the labor sector. Furthermore, the negative views, including limited government support, lower social control, and persistent homelessness seems to ensure greater participation in crimes. Criminal behavior can also be prompted by peers, negative values, and lack of fear of the law (Baron, 2008). The research by Baron (2008) implies that unemployment has a direct impact on the commission of property crimes as well as drug dealing. Most of the effects relate to negative emotional reactions which turn into anger. The indirect relationship is complicated especially as the anger of unemployment is not directly caused by the unemployment experience alone. As such, anger is seen only on those blame their unemployment conditions on outside elements, but not those who do not blame their status on personal deficiencies (Fayrer and Sacerdote, 2011). Moreover, the significant external elements are impacted by an individual’s peer group. Those who do not have attributional elements and peer groups do not feel anger in their unemployment. Emotions relating to relative deprivation as well as financial dissatisfaction alongside unsuccessful attempts at finding work are all elements which often generate anger related to unemployment (Baron, 2008). The significant and direct link between unemployment and crime is also complicated. Findings indicate that unemployment is likely to impact on crime when individuals are not pleased with their financial status (Hellwig, 2009). In effect, the subjective assessment of one’s economic status during unemployment is crucial. Such dissatisfaction is also a predictor of crime, including relative deprivation which has been considered a predictor of violent crime (Baron, 2008). However, unemployment also has a major impact on specific crimes, including drug dealing. The direction of impact for drug dealing may be bidirectional especially as continued unemployment may lead youths to resort to drug dealing, and the lucrative nature of drug dealing may prompt the youth to stay in drug dealing instead of seeking legitimate work (Zhang, 2007). The more objective assessments for deprivation related to unemployment has also a significant link to crime. Without state support, property crimes and drug dealing incidents increase; these incidents are made worse by the presence of violent crimes (Yearwood and Koinis, 2011). Moreover, homelessness also emerged as a predictor for property offending. Such findings indicate that with a strong commitment to paid work which is often exacerbated with frustrations through periods of unemployment; as a result, crime commission can emerge (Wu and Wu, 2010). With a strong work ethic, indirectly, violence and drug crimes can occur with feelings of anger causing the commission of violent crimes. Moreover, those who actively seek work but were often not hired were likely to harbor angry feelings, sometimes leading to violent crimes and drug dealing. Those who have given up job searches were also more likely to engage in drug dealing and violent activities (Baron, 2008). Without taking part in the labor market therefore, the youths are often more likely to be involved in environments where contact with the society is reduced and as such they become more likely to be involved in violent activities. Research also indicates that friends and personal values also impact on the types of crime committed, often indicating the violent involved in the commission of the crimes (Pascopella, 2010). The streets seem to be the venue by which criminals can pressure other youths into crime. With time, these youths distance themselves from their families and spend their time more in the streets with their peers. They also develop a lack of fear of authorities or legalities, and find themselves develop so-called street smarts (Patalinghug, 2009). The Baron (2008) research raises important points but is based on the context of cross-sectional research. As such, the present emotional reactions, including views on deprivation are associated with previous criminal behavior. Continued participation in crime may have caused an increase in the link with criminal peers as well as the adoption of values relating to criminal activities. Longitudinal studies indicate how strain and offending may be more stable with time, allowing reassurance of results. More studies may be needed to support these results. The results from the Baron study cannot therefore be used and applied outside a street youth population. In the study by Buonanno and Montolio (2008) similar points are raised. The authors used the economic model of crime, applying this to Spain in order to identify the socio-economic determinants of crime. The authors covered the 1993 to 1999 time period. Results indicate how lagged crime rates, as well as clear-up rate are associated with the types of crime rates being evaluated. Property crimes can sufficiently be explained using socioeconomic elements (GDP, GDP growth rate, and educational attainment); however demographic elements can imply important influences, mostly in crimes committed against an individual (Shelton, 2009). Such results can be taken using an instrumental variable tool which uses the dynamic elements of the dataset in order to manage the measurement tools for crime data. The authors were also able to establish the crime equation via a dataset from Spanish provinces from 1993 to 1999. The assessment used a provincial dataset, used demographic and urban elements, and used the dynamics in criminal activities. Their assessment indicated better results on property crimes with these crimes more likely to be affected by economic reasons as compared to other types of crimes. This paper primarily concluded that all crime rates are based on persistent rates consistent with time. Economic elements which are utilized to cover legal and illegal elements are consistent for property crimes. This study, in contrast to the Baron study indicates that the relationship between crime and unemployment is less clear, with more studies needed in this area. In the study by Carmichael and Ward (2001), the paper set out to use county level data to evaluate the link between crime and male adult as well as youth unemployment in Britain. In general, the study found a systematic positive association between crimes and male unemployment. The link refers to the occurrence of crimes like burglary, theft, fraud, forgery, and overall crime rates. For these offences, the link between youth unemployment and specific crimes was considered generally stronger. However, with the higher rates of adult unemployment, higher crime rates were also observed. The male unemployment population was also seen to be consistent with robbery rates. The comment by Cebula (2012) on the study by Yearwood and Keanis (2009) presented an evaluation of the property and economic conditions and how these elements impact on the commission of crimes. Various studies have sought to evaluate the use of unemployment rates to explain the commission of crimes. This comment evaluated findings testing the link between unemployment and crime predictability. A focus on elements like larceny-theft, burglary, motor vehicle theft, robbery, fraud and embezzlement were observed. Based on the empirical nature of the research, various elements were evaluated and unemployment was the only variable which was seen as a major predictor of crimes. Results indicated other economic elements, including average salary and reimbursements, supplementary income, consumer price index, as well as personal income. Where these elements impact favorably on the individual’s employment status, it is possible to improve employment conditions and decrease crime rates. In the study by Fallahi and colleagues (2012), the authors set out to evaluate the impact of unemployment on crime in the US. This study suggests that with unemployment and its instability, crime may sometimes result. The volatility of the jobless rates have been based on the ARCH models, and later the results of the initial stage of the ARDL tool was integrated in order to assess the relationship between unemployment and its unstable nature on the commission of crime. The study revealed that the longer term relationships were seen only for burglary and motor-vehicle theft. This was consistent also with the Cebula and Baron studies. This study, very much like the Baron study links unemployment and crime commission positively with each other with unemployment and its related instability having a long-term impact on crime. In the study by Fougere and colleagues (2009), the authors set out to assess the impact of unemployment on property crimes as well as violent crimes in France, from 1990 to 2000. This assessment is the first extensive study carried out in the country. The authors established regional wide data sets in order to measure crime as reported by the Ministry of Interior. They also established measures for unemployment rate including social, economic, and demographic elements via various elements of the French Labor Survey. The authors used the Becker type model where unemployment is used as to measure how potential criminals perform in the job market. The results indicate that under the cross-section element, crime and unemployment rates are positively related with each other. The rise in youth unemployment also seems to imply higher crime rates. Via predicted industrial variables for unemployment, such impact relates directly to burglaries, thefts, and drug crimes. To manage crime commission, it seems important for all strategies to be managed based on managing youth unemployment, especially as these youths are more likely to be drawn into crimes when unemployed (World Bank, 2012). Habibullah and Baharom (2009) discuss the effect of economic conditions on the different crimes committed in Malaysia from 1973 to 2003. This study used the autoregressive distributed lag bounds as a testing procedure, alongside ordinary least squares in order to re-evaluate the accuracy of results. This study found that crimes like murder, armed robbery, rape, assault, daylight burglary, as well as motorcycle theft have manifested long-run links with economic conditions, with the effects relating to economic conditions impacting on crime rates, not the other way around. Based on longitudinal elements, favorable economic performances impacted positively on murder, rape, assault, daylight burglary, and motorcycle theft. Once again, the link between property crimes and unemployment has been made by yet another research study. The link is based on causal elements with unemployment leading to the commission of property crimes, including burglary, motorcycle theft, and in some cases, violent crimes. The researchers also highlighted the importance of more studies to be undertaken on the subject matter, using demographic elements per capital for the respondent population. The researchers also recommended policies on crime-fighting to be based on the links established between unemployment and criminal activity. Halicioglu (2012) sought to evaluate the factors relating to nonviolent, violent crimes in Turkey from 1965 to 2009. Elements impacting on the crime categories mostly related to specific socio-economic elements. The Bounds testing approach was applied to evaluate the presence of relationship between the variables. The cointegration assessment indicated that major variables impacting crime commission include income and unemployment. In general therefore, the study also indicates how unemployment can impact on crime commission. The link between these variables is more clearly stated by Halicioglu (2012) as compared to the Buonanno and Montolio study which indicates ambiguity in the link between unemployment and crime. In the study by Imrohoroglu and colleagues (2006), the authors used an overlapping generations measure where respondents were allowed to participate in legitimate financial undertakings as well as crimes in order to evaluate the role of specific elements on property crime rates. Specifically, the authors set out to evaluate if differences in unemployment rates, portions of low human capital individuals within the economy, apprehension, probability, length of jail sentences, as well as inequality of income can general major differences in crime rates seen in various countries. The authors established that differences in income can cause major differences in crime rates across similar settings. The impact of economic issues was also highlighted in this paper, especially in relation to how differences in income status can cause higher crime rates, mostly referring to rising property crimes. Ivaschenko and colleagues (2012) also set out to assess the crime rate elements and related determinants via a panel set for some parts of Russia from 1995 to 2007. The authors focused on elements of convergence and divergence for crime rates across various regions, evaluating times of economic crisis. The authors also simulated the impact of the 2008 to 2010 financial crisis on the crime rates for Russia. The study established how real income, unemployment, and income inequality were the most important elements impacting on crime rates. Elevated levels of urbanization were also closely related to higher crime rates. The authors also saw the convergence in regional crime rates during the 1998 crisis was affected mostly by elevated crime rates in areas which did not originally manifest high crime rates. The finding of the authors also implies conclusions in relation to the role of the anti-crisis government policies for crime reduction. In terms of types of crime, their assessment supports the fact that economic and property crimes seem to be very responsive to shifting economic challenges and conditions. In effect, this study implies that changes in the economic situation have a major impact on crime rates. Where better economic conditions are observed, lower crime rates may sometimes be observed, and as indicated in previous studies, economic downturns can lead to elevated crime rates, especially as the government has less control over the conditions of the people and the resources at their disposal. In the study by Kollais and Paloulogou (2012), the authors set to evaluate the effect of unemployment on different kinds of crime in Greece. The authors used various tests in order to determine causality and response assessment in order to establish the link between unemployment and 14 different kinds of crime. This study established a link between unemployment and three types of crimes – thefts, robberies, and smuggling. This study implies that since crimes are mostly based on economic gain, it may be important for the government to secure policies which would help manage economic issues, especially during recessions, and mostly for vulnerable and economically disadvantaged groups. This study also indicates the importance of improving economic conditions in Greece especially as their crime rates are also increasing. These variables are related and even if the relationship has not been fully established by studies made in Greece, the empirical data supports a major link between the current economic situation in Greece and their rapidly increasing crime rate. Machin and colleagues (2010) set out to present results indicating empirical links between crime and education, using data from Britain. Favorable findings indicate how criminal activity is unfavorably linked with elevated levels of education. However, it is important to guarantee that the causation flow comes from education and then to crime. This also relates to the results in the study by Habibullah where unemployment has a causal relationship with crime commission. The authors identified the impact of education on participation in criminal activity using shifts in compulsory school indicating age laws over time credited for endogeneity in education. Based on the causal link for property crimes, the negative relationship between education and crime is still significant. The implications relating to education and crime are still however very much unclear. These results indicate however that improving the education status of individuals can ensure social and economic benefits which can be used as a tool in decreasing crime rates. In Sweden, Oster and Agell (2010) set out to determine the impact of unemployment on crime. Their findings indicate that unemployment has a significant impact on the incidence of burglary, auto theft, as well as drug possession. These results support the results from previous studies which relate unemployment with the commission of property crimes. The link between unemployment and drug use is also observed in this study. This study also raises concerns on children from impoverished families being more likely to engage in illicit activities including gang activities, robbery, theft, and drug use. Unstable conditions within the family in other words, affect the life and the life choices of children. Phillips and Land (2012) also discuss how unemployment can impact on criminal activity, especially as it increases criminal motivation within populations often impacting on the vulnerability of criminal targets. The strongest link between unemployment and crime rates relate to larceny, motor vehicle theft, and burglary; these crimes were also mentioned in previous studies, with burglary and motor vehicle theft playing a prominent role in the crimes committed during periods of unemployment. The studies above highlight the relationship between criminality and economic status, specifically how economic downturns and its related elements can trigger the commission of crimes. Specifically, unemployment has a negative impact on individuals, often causing individuals to commit crimes in order to provide for their daily needs (Saridakis and Spengler, 2012). They are forced to commit mostly property crimes including robbery, theft, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. These are often crimes of opportunity which generally seek to assuage monetary issues (Shiller, 2010). Unfortunately, these crimes often escalate and may at times involve violence. To younger individuals who may often find themselves in dire financial straits, they sometimes resort to petty crimes, which eventually escalate to major property crimes, and later to violent crimes (Shiller, 2010). Drug use and drug dealing is also usually also a major issue observed for those who are impoverished. The youth often find themselves involved in property crimes and may later be involved in gangs and drug dealing through their involvement in criminal activities and behavior. The issue of children’s unstable home life can also impact on the behavior of children, mostly through their involvement in gang activity and drug use (Patalinghug, 2009, Baron, 2008). These studies also recommend how government policies to resolve criminality must also relate to the improvement of economic situations, specifically targeting those who may be vulnerable to criminal activities. Annotated Bibliography Aiginger, K. (2010). The Great Recession vs. the Great Depression: Stylized facts on siblings that were given different foster parents. Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal, 4. This study compared the details of the Great Recession and the Great Depression, determining also how these two economic periods were somehow similar and also different from each other. This study was used in order to understand the details relating to these economically depressed periods. Baron, S. (2008) Street Youth, Unemployment, and Crime: Is It That Simple? Using General Strain Theory to Untangle the Relationship.Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice.50(4), 399-434. This study discusses the relationship between street crimes among youth, unemployment, and related crimes. This study was used in order to determine the relationship between unemployment and crime. Blinder, A. & Zandi, M. (2010, July 27) How the Great Recession Was Brought to an End. Economist. Retrieved from http://www.economy.com/mark-zandi/documents/End-of-Great-Recession.pdf This study sought to discuss the details relating to the Great Recession and how it was eventually managed by the government and by the economic system in place. This study was not referenced in this study but was considered in order to understand how the period of recession was eventually resolved. Britt, C. (1994) Crime and Unemployment Among Youths in the United States, 1958-1990. American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 53(1), 99-109. This resource presented a survey relating unemployment and crime among youths. This study was evaluated in order to support the link between unemployment and crime within the younger population. Buonanno, P., & Montolio, D. (2008). Identifying the socio-economic and demographic determinants of crime across Spanish provinces. International Review of Law and Economics, 28(2), 89-97. doi: 10.1016/j.irle.2008.02.005 This study discussed the socio-economic elements affecting criminality in Spain. This study was included in order to understand the link between economic conditions and crime. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2012) Crime Data, Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/ This resource provided resources for crime statistics. It was used as a reference for crime rates in the US. Bureau of Labour Statistics (2012) Statistics, Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://www.bls.gov/ This resource also provided resources for statistics on economic status and crime. It was used as a reference in order to relate crime and socioeconomic status of individuals. Carmichael, F. & Ward, R. (2001) Male unemployment and crime in England and Wales.Economics Letters.73(1), 111-115. This resource was used to detail the relationship between male unemployment and criminality in England and Wales. This reference was used in order to determine male-focused link between crime commission and unemployment. Cebula, R. J. (2012). Revisiting property crime and economic conditions: An exploratory study to identify predictive indicators beyond unemployement rates --Comment. The Social Science Journal, 49, 3`4-3`6. doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2011.09.007 This was a commentary on the article Revisiting property crime and economic conditions: An exploratory study to identify predictive indicators beyond unemployment rates. This article was used in order to provide a related assessment of unemployment and crime rates. Conley, T. & Dupor, B. (2011) The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act: Public Sector Jobs Saved, Private Sector Jobs Forestalled. Ohio State University Working Paper No.05-17. This article discussed details relating to the The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and its impact on employment. It was included in order to provide a context for this study in terms of economic investments and jobs. DeBondt, W. (2010). The crisis of 2008 and financial reform. Qualitative Research in Financial Markets, 2(3), 137-156. doi: 10.1108/17554171011091728 This study discusses the 2008 economic crisis and the reform which followed the crisis. This study was used in order to help understand the elements surrounding the 2008 economic crisis. Fallahi, F., Pourtaghi, H. & Rodriguez, G. (2012) The unemployment rate, unemployment volatility, and crime. International Journal of Social Economics.39(6), 440-448. This reference discussed unemployment and vulnerabilities relating to crime. It was used in order to help understand unemployment and its link to criminality. Feyrer, J. & Sacerdote, B. (2011) Did the Stimulus Stimulate? Real Time Estimates of the Effects of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.NBER Working Paper No. 16759. This resource provided details on the stimulus plan provided by the government during the economic crisis in 2008. It was included because it provided a context in understanding the economic recession and the policies implemented by the government in response to the crisis. Fougere, D., Kramarz, F. & Pouget, J. (2009) Youth Unemployment and Crime in France. Journal of the European Economic Association.7(5), 909-938. This study related youth unemployment and crime in the context of France. It was used in order to provide details on the impact of unemployment on the younger population. Gregory Wyatt, D. F. (2009). The perceived challenges of implementing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. State & Local Government Review, 41(2), 128-132. Retrieved September 09, 2013, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25593639 . This study indicated the challenges encountered in implementing the Reinvestment Act. It was used in order to understand the Reinvestment act and issues in its implementation. Habibullah, M.S. & Baharom, H.H. (2009) Crime and economic conditions in Malaysia. International Journal of Social Economics. 36(11), 1071-1081. This study related crime and the economy in the context of Malaysia. It was included because it helped this author understand crime and the economy. Halicioglu, F. (2012) Temporal causality and the dynamics of crime in Turkey. International Journal of Social Economics.39(9), 704-720. This study considered the elements of crime and its causes in Turkey. It was included in order to understand the elements impacting crime in terms of the socioeconomic details. Hellwig, M. F. (2009). Systemic risk in the financial sector: An analysis of the subprime-mortgage financial crisis. De Economist, 157(2), 129-207. doi: 10.1007/s10645-009-9110-0 This study indicated details relating to the mortgage crisis in the US and how it affected the economy. It was included in order to place the recession into context and to understand its impact on the general lives of individuals affected. Imrohoroglu, A., Merlo, A. & Rupert, P. (2006) Understanding the determinants of crime. Journal of Economics and Finance.30(2), 270-284. This study discussed the elements affecting the commission of crime. It was included in this study because it helped this author understand the causes of crime. Ivaschenko, O., Nivorozhkin, A. & Nivorozhkin, E. (2012) The Role of Economic Crisis and Social Spending in Explaining Crime in Russia.Regional Panel Data, Analysis.Eastern European Economics. 50(4), 21-41. This study discussed how economic crisis plays a role in criminality in Russia. It was included because it provided details on the link between criminality and the economy in the more specific context of Russia. Jennings, E. T., Jr., Hall, J. L., & Zhang, Z. (2012). The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and state accountability. Public Performance & Management Review, 35(3), 527-549. doi: 10.2753/PMR1530-9576350308 This study further discussed the Reinvestment Act and relating it with the American recovery plan. It was included in order to determine the remedies being undertaken by the government in order to resolve the crisis. Kollais, C. & Paloulogou, S.-M. (2012) Labour market conditions and crime in Greece.International Journal of Social Economics.39(12), 983-1000. This study discussed the economic conditions in Greece and how they affect the crime rates in the country. This was included in order to provide another context for the link between the economy and crime. Loureiro, P. & Sachsida, A. (2009) Crime, economic conditions, social interactions and family heritage. International Review of Law and Economics. 29(3), 202-209. This study discussed the economy, as well as social and family relations and how they affect the commission of crimes. This was included because it provided a more social and family context for criminality. Machin, S., Marie, O. & Vujic, S. (2011) The Crime Reducing Effect of Education. The Economic Journal.121(552), 463-484. This study discussed the link between crime and education. It was included because it provided another socioeconomic element in evaluating crime and its causes. Maitner, R., Jr. (2010). Recovery Act of 2009: A Question of Numbers. Journal of Government Financial Management, Spring, 22-29. Retrieved September 09, 2013. This study discussed the actual impact of the Recovery Act by the government, mostly with statistical results. It was included in this study in order to further understand policies relating to the economic crisis in 2008. Matthews, D. (2011) Did the stimulus work? A review of the nine best studies on the subject.The Washington Post, 08/24. This study provided a review of the studies evaluating the impact of the economic stimulus plan by the government. It was included in order to further understand the policies following the economic crisis of 2008. Mishkin, F. S. (2011). Over the Cliff: From the subprime to the global financial crisis. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(1), winter, 49-70. doi: 10.1257/jep.25.1.49 This study provided a link between the property crisis in the US to the global economic crisis. This study was included in order to provide details on the 2008 mortgage crisis in the US and the 2009 global financial crisis which followed. Orndoff, C., & Papkov, G. (2012). Effect of the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) on civil engineering. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice, january, 2-9. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000073 This study discussed the economic recovery plan set by the US and how it affected the construction industry which was the most affected industry in the US. This study was included in order to evaluate the various policies established by the US in order to address the financial crisis in the US in 2008. Oster, A. & Agell, J. (2007) Crime and Unemployment in Turbulent Times. Journal of the European Economic Association.5(4), 752-775. This study discussed the link between criminality and unemployment during economic crisis. This was included in order to support the study seeking to understand the economy and criminality. Page, B. & Reichling, F. (2011, May 25) Estimated Impact of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act on Employment and Economic Output from January 2011 Through March 2011. Congressional Budget Office Report. This study discussed the impact of the reinvestment act on the 2011 economy. This study was included because it provided a recent context on the impact of the economic recovery plan. Pascopella, A. (2010) ARRA Funds Empower Schools to Power Down. District Administration.46(10), 38-39. This study discussed how the ARRA Funds were planned to assist the education of the US. It was included in order to establish details relating to education and the economy. Patalinghug, E. (2009) Identifying the Link between Unemployment and Crime in the Philippines. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice.33(1), 83-95. This study sought to identify the relationship between crime and unemployment based on a Philippine context. This study was included because it provided a Third World setting for the current analysis. Phillips, J., & Land, K. C. (2012). The link between unemployment and crime rate fluctuations: An analysis at the county, state, and national levels. Social Science Research, 41, 681-694. This study discussed also the relationship between unemployment and criminality. It was included because it provided a smaller and also a general context for the link between crime and unemployment. Phillips, P. B., & Yu, J. (2011). Dating the timeline of financial bubbles during the subprime crisis. Quantitative Economics, 2(3), 455-491. doi: 10.3982/QE82 This study presented the events which led to the 2008-2009 financial crisis. This study was included in order to understand the financial crisis of 2008 and its general impact on society. Rehrmann, R., Timmer, E., Volker, S. & Yarborough, M. (2009) American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Impact on Maryland Governments. Office of Policy Analysis.Annapolis, Maryland: Department of Legislative Services. This study discussed the Reinvestment Plan and its impact on Maryland. It was included in order to further understand and put into specific context the financial crisis which was seen in 2008-2009. Shiller, R. (2010). How should the financial crisis change how we teach economics? The Journal of Economic Education, 41(4), 403-409. doi: 10.1080/00220485.2010.510409 This study discussed the impact of the 2008 financial crisis and what the country has learned from such crisis. This was included in order to further understand the effects of the crisis and whether or not it has taught America anything about how to handle future economic issues. Saridakis, G. & Spengler, H. (2012) Crime, deterrence and unemployment in Greece: A panel data approach. The Social Science Journal.49(2), 167-174. This study discussed the link between unemployment and crime in Greece. It was included in order to understand the current state of the economy in Greece which was worst hit by the European crisis; and how such economic state is currently affecting its crime rates. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2009) Research Methods for Business Students, Harlow: FT Prentice Hall. This study discussed various research methods which can be used by business students. It was included as a guide in carrying out quality research. Shelton, A.M. (2009) Unemployment Insurance Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/key_workplace/618. This study discussed unemployment in relation to the Reinvestment Act in the US. It was included in order to further detail the impact of unemployment in the US as a result of the economic crisis in 2008. US Census Bureau (2012) Crime Rates Data, Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/law_enforcement_courts_prisons/crimes_and_crime_rates.html This resource presented statistical data on crime in the US. It was included in this research in order to provide details on crime rates in America. USDOJ: The Recovery Act: Justice Recovery Act Programs. (2011, June). USDOJ: The Recovery Act: Justice Recovery Act Programs. Retrieved September 09, 2013, from http://www.justice.gov/recovery/rec-prog.html This resource provided details on the Justice Recovery Act programs and how they impact on America. It was included because it provided elements relevant to the current studies on demographics and crime rates. World Bank (2012) World Development Indicators. Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators This study presented indicators in determining global development. It was included in order to define socioeconomic elements as well as political elements impacting on global development. Wu, D. & Wu, Z. (2012) Crime, inequality and unemployment in England and Wales.Applied Economics.44(29), 3765-3775. This study discussed crime and unemployment in England and Wales. This was included because it provided a contextual assessment of the link between unemployment and criminality, most specifically for England and Wales. Yearwood, D. L., & Koinis, G. (2011). Revisiting property crime and economic conditions: An exploratory study to identify predictive indicators beyond unemployment rates. The Social Science Journal, 48, 145-158. doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.015 This study discussed the relationship between property crimes and the economy. It was included in order to provide on why there are more property crimes during periods of recession or economic downturns. Zhang, R. (2007) Economic Model of Official Crime based on Life Cycle Hypothesis. Systems Engineering - Theory and Practice. 27(8), 39-48. This study discussed the life cycle hypothesis in terms of crime and the economy. This was included in order to provide a more theoretical understanding of crime and unemployment. References Aiginger, K. (2010). 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(2009) Unemployment Insurance Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/key_workplace/618. US Census Bureau (2012) Crime Rates Data, Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/law_enforcement_courts_prisons/crimes_and_crime_rates.html USDOJ: The Recovery Act: Justice Recovery Act Programs. (2011, June). USDOJ: The Recovery Act: Justice Recovery Act Programs. Retrieved September 09, 2013, from http://www.justice.gov/recovery/rec-prog.html United Nations Global Pulse (2010). Monitoring the impact of the economic crisis on crime. Retrieved September 18, 2010 from http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/crime/GIVAS_Final_Report.pdf World Bank (2012) World Development Indicators. Retrieved 26 December 2012 from: http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators Wu, D. & Wu, Z. (2012) Crime, inequality and unemployment in England and Wales.Applied Economics.44(29), 3765-3775. Yearwood, D. L., & Koinis, G. (2011). Revisiting property crime and economic conditions: An exploratory study to identify predictive indicators beyond unemployment rates. The Social Science Journal, 48, 145-158. doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.015 Zhang, R. (2007) Economic Model of Official Crime based on Life Cycle Hypothesis. Systems Engineering - Theory and Practice. 27(8), 39-48. Read More