Cold War and its Impact on International Racism and Segregation - Research Paper Example

?Shante’ Sadler American Studies Senior Seminar Demirjian Final Paper Cold War and its Impact on International Racism and Segregation The historical development of countries is usually influenced by their traditions and ethics but also by the conditions and the trends in the commercial environment. Normally, the elimination of inequalities and unfairness is the key element of most social policies developed in countries of different social and political characteristics. At this point the following question appears: what are the criteria by which national legislators and policy makers should tackle specific social problems? The aspects of two social problems, international racism and segregation are examined in this paper. Emphasis is given to international racism and the segregationist image of the United States. It is concluded that the Cold War has significantly affected the international image of the United States regarding racism and segregation. The level of interaction of the above products are not standardized; within different social, political and economic conditions, the events of the Cold War could have led to different perceptions of the country’s international image regarding racism and segregation. The Cold War has strongly affected the perceptions on human rights. The starting point of the War can be identified at the end of the Second World War, i.e. in 1945. However, certain of its ideas have been already appeared before the end of the Second World War, even in 1939. Different views have been developed regarding the role of the Cold War on concepts, such as racism and segregation. According to Professor Adam Fairclough1, the Cold War has influenced the views of people on racial differences, leading to the promotion of values such as equality and fairness among people of different racial background and characteristics. More specifically, Professor Fairclough suggested that ‘the war had helped to discredit theories of racial superiority’.2 The above view is based on the fact that after the end of Nazism in Europe, people in countries that suffered significant damages – and human losses – could not tolerate any form of discrimination, which has been the key rule of Nazism.3 The specific fact is highlighted in the study of Professor Fairclough where reference is made to the non-acceptance of the concept of racial superiority, as the above framework was developed during the Second World War. It is explained that since the end of the Second World War the public does not accept any form of racism, either expressed, as Anti-Semitism or other form of racial discrimination. In addition, the Cold War has helped to increase awareness of both governments and the public on racial discrimination, making the specific problem ‘an international issue’.4 According to Professor Fairclough, racial discrimination has been an argument offering to the enemies, or else the political opponents, the chance to ask for the termination of existing governmental plans; for example, reference is made to the claim of Russia, during the Cold War, that USA does not respect human rights, especially the rights of black people.5 At this point, reference should be made to the following fact: the United States has traditionally faced a series of significant challenges regarding the entrance in the country of foreigners. Politicians do not equally support the continuous increase of foreigners across the country. In fact, certain of them are clearly opposed to such perspective. The issue is made clear in the speech of Joseph McCarthy on Communists in 1950. The key point of the specific speech has been the following one: foreigners are considered as not being directly related to the American Economy.6 Rather, it is believed that the problems of the country are related not to foreigners but to the traitors activating across the country.7 It is explained that these traitors are likely to enjoy all social and political benefits across the country, such as the right to education and the right to housing, at their highest possibly quality. Moreover, it seems that the behavior of these individuals has led to the development of severe problems across the country, meaning the economic and social turbulences that followed the end of the Cold War. The Cold War helped to understand another aspect of social rights, the cost involved in their promotion. In a speech of Dwight Eisenhower referring to the expenses made on military, the following issue is highlighted: social rights are of higher importance compared to the military. From this point of view, in periods of strong crisis, like the post – 1945 period, a hierarchy should be developed regarding the public expenses; public funds would be used rather for the promotion of human rights and not for the continuous update of technology – which is used for the development of effective weapons of war. The above view of Eisenhower reflects a different perspective regarding the role of military as a tool for achieving political targets. By the end of the Cold War, the countries involved have been able to follow a different path for supporting their economy; emphasis is given on the increase of investment and of the time spent on the protection of human rights and the limitation of racism and segregation. The speech of Eisenhower reflects the views on racism as developed in the context of the Cold War; in the above speech reference is made to the importance of ‘liberty, dignity and integrity among people and among nations’;8 the specific speech is quite valuable in order to understand the international image of the United States regarding racism, as this image has been strongly shaped by the events and the rules of the Cold War, taking into consideration the fact that the speech was given when the Cold War was already well developed, i.e. in 1961. The promotion of human rights, including the right to be treated equally, has been primarily reflected in the Four Freedoms, a text summarizing the key points (rules) of the American Foreign Policy. The above Freedoms, as included in the Message of president Franklin Roosevelt to the Congress in 1941 refer to the ‘freedom of speech, of worship God, the freedom from want and the freedom for fear’;9 the last two freedoms would be related to foreigners living across the United States and would be used for securing the rights of these people to have access to the job market and to be protected against any physical or verbal assault or from any violation of their rights.10 These freedoms were clearly stated during the Second World War and can be used for explaining the international image of the United States regarding racism and segregation. The efforts of the country’s president to emphasize on the respect of human rights, including the right to equal treatment in all aspects of social activities, indicate the importance of human rights for the United States legislators and governors. Despite the fact that the above Message has been included in a speech of the president before the end of the Second World War, and the beginning of the Cold War, does not lead to the limitation of the message’s value for understanding the perspectives on international racism and segregation as related to the Foreign policy of the United States. Another text also revealing the perceptions of American legislators on international racism is the following one: ‘the declaration of ILO concerning Aims and Purposes’11 International Labor Organization sets the criteria on which the evaluation of work worldwide would be based; in the above context, reference is made to the right of all individuals to ‘pursue their well-being’12 no matter of their racial background or other demographic characteristics. By recognizing to people of all racial characteristics equal rights for talk, work and worship God, the following benefits have been achieved: a) international racism is discouraged, not just in the United States but also internationally, b) it is made clear that racism and segregation are not tolerated in the United States, even if there are cases where opposite assumptions can be made, meaning the potential appearance of phenomena of racism especially under the influence of global economic turbulences. The fact that racism and segregation are clearly condemned through the above document, which has been published shortly before the beginning of the Cold War, indicate the trends in the United States regarding the specific social phenomena during the particular period. The specific assumption is verified by the following fact: in his speech in 1961, as presented above, president Eisenhower focused on the importance of the protection of human rights as a key foreign policy of the United states; it is assumed that the opposition against racism and segregation which was clear in the beginning of the Cold War has been kept strong up to the end of the above war, as the primary resources related to the events of the specific period prove. In the Potsdam Conference of 1945, it is made clear that any racial discrimination would not be tolerated in the context of the international community.13 At Potsdam, the political principles to be applied to post-war Germany were clearly defined. In the article 4 of part II (Political Principles) of the above Conference it is noted that ‘4. All Nazi laws which provided the basis of the Hitler regime or established discriminations on grounds of race, creed, or political opinion shall be abolished’.14 The prohibition of racial discrimination, as imposed on Germany, shows the willingness of the American Government, along with the governments of Britain and Russia, to eliminate any hint of racial discrimination and segregation in post-war Europe. However, the specific risk for American society has not been extinguished, even if texts and agreements have been published periodically for ensuring the elimination of racial discrimination in the particular country. The Allied effort to set limits on racial discrimination and segregation are reflected in the meeting of their foreign ministers, that took place in London in 1945. There, the progress of these countries’ efforts to eliminate inequalities across countries, previously occupied by Germany, was evaluated. In fact, the effort for eliminating inequality has been related to the effort for promoting peace in the international community. It has been revealed that the improvement of relationships among states is not adequate for securing peace; rather, it is necessary for the people in the countries involved to become friends.15 It should be noted that the above meeting reflected the progress of the United States in confronting racism and segregation at, a rather early stage of the Cold War, since the meeting was held in 1945, i.e. the year when the Cold War began. In order to understand the progress of efforts regarding the protection of human rights during the Cold War – meaning also the efforts for confronting racism and segregation – it would be necessary to refer to the rules that most affected the specific war. The Protocol of Yalta of 1945 has been considered as the text incorporating the key aspects of the Cold War, as a conflict for verifying the control on a particular area of interest. In the above Protocol, the power of three countries, the United States, Russia and Britain, to evaluate the efforts of countries to gain their independency has been clearly defined. Despite the fact that the above text aimed to secure the perspectives of the countries liberated from Germany to achieve a stable growth, still its scopes are not clear, giving the impression of the willingness of these three countries to dominate the area which was, until then, under the control of Germany.16 The Yalta Conference did not refer directly to racism; however, it included a detailed reference to the right of the countries, which were liberated from Germany, to establish a democratic regime and to seek for assistance, for the damages and the losses they have suffered because of the German’s invasion. It is assumed that racial discrimination and segregation will not be tolerated; in this way, the Yalta Protocol of 1945 becomes the primary document through which racial discrimination is prohibited.17 During his speech before the ‘National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’18 in 1947, Harry Truman emphasized on the importance of ‘civil rights and human freedom’. It is explained that a series of events worldwide has confirmed the importance of these rights for securing the quality of life of people in different social classes. Reference is made probably to the Second World War, which had been ended two years before, i.e. in 1945. It should be mentioned that the specific speech does not introduce any differentiation regarding the power of people in America to ask for the protection of their civil rights; for this reason, it is noted that ‘all Americans’ have such power – racism and segregation are clearly rejected. Additionally, in the above speech, civil rights and freedom are considered as the nation’s fundamental principles, being related to the traditions on which the establishment of the Republic has been initially based. It is explained that the tolerance of any form of racism or segregation would be considered as acceptance of a tyrannical form of governance. Moreover, it is made clear that the only restrictions or limitations that an American could be tolerated would refer to his ‘ability and his industry and his character’.19 In addition to the above speech, reference should be made to a letter of President Truman to Ernie Roberts; the specific letter was sent the next year, i.e. in 1948 and focused on the severe social conflicts developed in the South. In the above letter, emphasis is given on the system’s failures, as these failures affect the judgment of local officers and reduce the credibility of the system. Also, the violations of the rights of black people – referring mainly to their punishment with no particular reason – are mentioned as key reflections of the expansion of racism in America, a phenomenon which needs to be treated as an emergency.20 It is explained that these conflicts have been resulted from the lack of social equality and the ineffectiveness of the justice to impose the appropriate punishment on crimes committed because of the racial background of the victims (President Truman 1948).21 In other words, the speech and the letter of Truman, in 1947 and 1948 respectively, reflected a different condition regarding the status and the performance of human rights and civil rights in Athens. It is made clear that phenomena of racism can be identified across the United States, especially in the South where the problem is related to the system’s failure in order to develop effective plans of action. The contradiction in the evaluation of the trends of the United States regarding racism and segregation, as phenomenon related to the Cold War, could be explained as follows: focusing on the issues of racism and segregation has become a common activity for politicians worldwide; the limitation of these phenomena in practice have been proved to be difficult, especially because in the United States each state has its own rules, traditions and ethics; b) the evaluation on the level of racism and segregation across the United States has been based on different criteria; however, the perceptions of Harry Truman on racism and segregation are based on specific events – for instance shots of black people who try to keep their job position.22 From this point of view, the perceptions of Harry Truman on racism and segregation in the United States should be taken into consideration, as they have been appropriately backed with necessary material and evidence. The trends in the United States legislation also reveal the increased chances for the expansion of racism and segregation across the country; reference can be made for example to the Alien Registration Act, a legislative text introduced in the United States in 1940; in the above text, emphasis was made on the obligation of alien residents in the United States to submit a form ‘mentioning their personal and occupational status’.23 The above text is in opposition with the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization. In the above Constitution, reference is made to the obligation of states to support refugees in regard to all their needs. Moreover, in the above Constitution it is made clearly that Germany and Japan will be asked to cover the cost of returning refugees to their countries.24 In the Constitution of the World Health Organization, in 1946, similar priorities are set regarding the obligations of the state towards the citizens.25 In the context of the specific Constitution, a freedom of asking for health care services is recognized to people of all educational and racial background – meaning the people living in America. The importance of the elimination of racism and segregation in USA during the Cold War has been made clear in the speech of Secretary Acheson in 1949; in the above speech emphasis is given on the protection of the interests and the rights of all people across the country – no matter their racial characteristics. It is noted that this obligation derives from the need for protecting justice across the country, meaning that no violation of civil rights would be acceptable in USA; the need for the country to align its policies with the international law is also made clear – reference is made to the protection of human rights and interests, as one of the country’s international obligations, meaning the obligations regarding rights which are protected by the international laws.26 A similar issue is discussed in the study of Klinker et al. (1999). In the above study, reference is made to the following fact: during the Cold War, civil rights in the Soviet Union have been violated. Discrimination in terms of race has become a common phenomenon. The President's Committee on Civil Rights (PCCR), as established by Truman in 1947, aimed to help towards the decrease of racial discrimination in Soviet Union.27 The above Committee noted that the Federal Law should be used for the protection of civil and human rights across USA – aiming to show that, in the near future, civil rights in USA will be appropriately protected. The above Committee is based on the American law on racism and discrimination; however, in other countries worldwide, there was no similar legislative framework, meaning that during the Cold War the laws referring to the protection of human and civil rights worldwide were limited – probably due to the efforts of these states to recovery from the Second World War. The Cold War has revealed the differences in the cultural and social traditions and ethics of the United States and Russia. Also, it has been made clear that the two countries are likely to follow different approaches in order to promote law and ethics worldwide. In a letter of N. Khrushchev to J. Kennedy in 1963 the concerns of the former regarding the practices used by the latter are highlighted. In accordance with N. Khrushchev the president of the United States has no right to use military forces as a tool for enforcing the international law. This view is particularly crucial today when the military involvement of the United States in foreign countries – using the claim that the relevant activity is developed for supporting international law - is further expanded.28 After examining the above initiative clearer, the following assumption can be made: USA could easier introduce laws regulating civil and human rights; during the Cold War most of the countries of Europe were under the direct or indirect control of USA; the participation of USA in the reconstruction of these countries after the Second World War created a dependency quite difficult to be terminated. Such phenomena are continued today.29 From this point of view, the promotion of civil and human rights in USA and the prohibition of behaviors cultivating the racism and segregation has been a significant effort – showing the changing trends in regard to racism and segregation internationally. However, a modern History workbook published in 1956 it is noted that human and democratic rights in Soviet Union are highly protected at such level that the intervention of foreigners in the country’s political and legal principles and practices is promoted. It is explained that the specific trend is not a unique phenomenon; rather, initiatives are in progress in the context of ‘the Potsdam Four-Power Agreement and the Warsaw Treaty’.30 Among the above texts, emphasis is given on the Warsaw Treaty, which is considered as a tool for introducing ideas and rationale, which can support the promotion of human and race rights in the context of the Former Soviet Union. It is assumed that racism and segregation are not particularly analyzed – probably because the specific plan refers mostly to the former socialist states, which have similar legal and political/ financial characteristics. In the context of the Cold War the trends regarding racism and segregation in the United States have been significantly changed; in the past, racism has been considered as one of the common social problems. Through the Cold War, racism was internationalized, a fact that, through the decades, have helped to the effective control of racism and segregation in the context of the international community. It should be noted that the forms of racism and segregation, as identified and evaluated in 1941s onwards, are not standardized; rather, they are likely to be depended on the local social conditions and traditions but also on the funds available for developing relevant plans of action. The examination of the events of the period of the Cold War has also led to the assumption that the efforts for controlling racism and segregation in the United States have been continuous, even if different approaches have been used for setting and evaluating the problem, i.e. the expansion of racism and segregation across the United States. Works Cited Constitution of the World Health Organization, July 22, 1946 (1). Retrieved in June 4 2011, from Constitution of the International Refugee Organization, December 15, 1946. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from Eisenhower speech concerning the Military Industrial Complex 1961. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from First Meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers, London, September 11 to October 2, 1945. Report by Secretary Byrnes, October 5, 1946. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from Harry S. Truman. Address Before the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. June 29, 1947. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from The International Labor Organization (ILO) Declaration Concerning Aims and Purposes, May 10, 1944. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from The Berlin (Potsdam) Conference, July 17-August 2, 1945. Protocol of the Proceedings. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Four Freedoms. Annual Message of the President to the Congress, January 6 1941. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from Yalta (Crimea) Conference February, 1945 Washington, March 24. Protocol of the Yalta Proceedings as published March 25, 1945. Retrieved in June 4 2011, from Read More