Manafi al-Hayawan: The Usefulness of Animals by Ibn Bakhtishu - Book Report/Review Example

Client Last Name 1 Manafi’ al-Hayawan: The Usefulness of Animals by Ibn Bakhtishu Introduction The book Manafi’ al-Hayawan, or The Usefulness of Animals by Ibn Bakhtishu is a work of science that was created in order to help understand how animals could be used to contribute to the health and wellbeing of mankind. However, the manuscript is full of beautiful illustrations that create an artistic and historical significance to the work. In understanding how the illustrations are important, it is first important to understand the use of symbolism and the historical context of the work and how the use of the illuminated manuscript became popular during the time of its creation. The book, itself, is a description of superstitious beliefs on the use of animals for medicinal purposes. Copies of the book, however, hold some of the most beautiful illustrations of animals one might find. In looking at the Manafi’ al-Hayawan manuscripts, there is significant beauty of the illustrative work and the work of the creators of the manuscript. Symbolism In order to understand the art of Ibn Bakhtishu’s Manafi’ al-Hayawan, one must first understand the aesthetics of the Islamic culture as it pertains to art. According to Diane Apostolos-Cappadona, art is the objectification of natural forms in order to create an understanding of the world. She says that “the work of art helps man achieve a mental as spiritual adjustment to the mystery of his existential situation”(166). She contends that there are three Client Last Name 2 symbolic meaning that can be found in art. The first is the explicit, the second is the literally symbolic, and the third is the implicit. The explicit is a representation of an object so that it can be easily recognized. This level is the surface level and that which can most easily be seen. The second concept of the literally symbolic allows for what is seen to represent or call into memory something else. When the art is viewed, what is initially seen is then transformed into something that the intellect has created from having seen the work (169). The third type of symbolism that can be found in artwork is that of the implicit. The implicit is concerned with the style and form that a piece of artwork as embraced. The symbolism is not only created by the visual of the piece, but by the message that is being translated by the way in which it has been created. The form of the artwork has an intent that must be taken into consideration when examining the work. Apostolos-Cappadona says that “Not only the subject matter, the iconography of the artwork is determined by those deepest convictions of a culture and people” (170). The interrelationships between the content of a piece and of the structure of the work create a deeper meaning that is most often related directly to cultural understandings and belief. Islamic Belief and Art To understand Islamic art, one must have an understanding of the religious point of view from which all things within the culture will bloom. The concept of tawhid is one of the more defining ideological concepts that will direct the efforts within Islamic tradition. Tawhid is the belief in the oneness of God, that he is the one Creator and that there is no other. There are many forms of the belief in tawhid. The Mu’tazilah believe in the separation of man’s power to God’s power and embrace the concept of free. Others, such as the Ash’ariyyah believe that there is free Client Last Name 3 will, but that it is subject to divine intervention and thus all part of God’s intent and plan (Kochler 52). All of the sects of Islam, however, believe that there is one God and that he is the one Creator and that all things must stem from his will in order to be good and holy. In this way, Islamic art reflect tawhid by revealing that which is inspired by God in its most divine representation, without having a divinity of its own. It is widely accepted that in the Islamic tradition it is considered blasphemous to represent a living being in an artistic endeavor. There does not seem to be a specific event that created this system of beliefs, but it is evident that in the High Middle Ages art began to shift away from literal representation toward the geometrically intricate designs that can be found in mosques and other public buildings (Graber 72). Some sects of Islam have taken radical approaches to their laws concerning the representation of images. In Afghanistan, artists have been known to carefully paint over other works of art in order to preserve them for the future as they know that if they are discovered, the works of art will be destroyed. The Taliban destroyed statues of Buddha within the country that were thousands of years old in order to preserve their belief that to represent the human figure was an affront to God. As well, the power of these ancient works of art to inspire their people might have played a practical reason behind such desecrating destruction (Florence 169). It would be an injustice, however, to allow Islam to appear as the only religious culture to destroy artistic representations of live forms, especially human forms. There are examples throughout Christian history of the objection to certain types of art that would represent the human form. Artistic Historical Context As afore mentioned, the replication of the human or animal form in Islamic art is Client Last Name 4 decidedly absent in much of the surviving art from antiquity. While the Qur’an does not specifically oppose art with living forms, there are passages that have been interpreted to mean that no other than God can create such a form. As well, there is evidence that Muhammad had negative ideas towards those who would make images of the human form, although there is also evidence that he had items that had images of the human form upon them (Canby 32). In private collections and homes, however, there is a significant amount of evidence to show that the human figure was prevalent and well used in artwork. From the 10th century, there is a wealth of evidence of the use of the human form on artworks from Iraq, Syria, Iran and Egypt. Therefore, by the 12th century, one can find a great deal of pottery with images of the human form, although they are outnumbered by those without figural decoration (Canby 32). Another issue that involves the study of Islamic art is that it has been difficult to assess proper regional differences, therefore creating a difficulty in assigning art to a population and time period (Salameh, 30). While the time period may be evident, it is not always evident from where the work came. An example of this are the illuminated Persian manuscripts of the early 15th century. While they are presumed to be associated with Iran, they have been assumed to have come from Muslim India simply because there are no longer any avenues that lead back to Iran from where they might have been created. The manuscripts do not have any specific attributes that make them from India, but because there is no other plausible answer, scholars have made this assumption (Ferber 6). Illuminated Manuscripts According to Salameh, during the Umayyad period in the early 8th century, there is evidence of some use of gold in creating transcriptions of the Qu’ran. Decorative panels that Client Last Name 5 were intended to set off passages and define the writing into sections could be seen using geometric patterns. Eventually, gilding became a profession within the Islamic communities so that manuscripts were created by intended format that was somewhat universal to the needs of the work. Kufic script was commonly used until the Abbasid period when naskhi became more commonly used. After the 12th century, the use of kufic script was restricted and used only rarely. The naskhi was used and illuminated with ornately gilded features. Letters were “encrusted with gold tastefully organized in serrated plates, with a base decorated with illuminated conical-shaped foliate motifs” (30). (Figure 1) Figure 1. Illuminated Page of the Qu’ran The elaborate ornamentations within the illuminated Qu’ran’s of the 12th century were rife with symbolic uses of color and imagery. The use of natural elements, trees, leaves and floral motifs, were now being used more liberally. The natural world was now available to these artists Client Last Name 6 to decorate these important writings and to define them as significant. The use of the color blue along with the gold signified the eternal sky and ocean and was used to outline the illuminated bands (Salameh 35). Manuscripts began to appear with the use of other colors became more popular, but it is most common to see the blue and the gold together on the illuminated pages. The skill of illumination was given value during these centuries. The gilding and artistry that went into creating the manuscripts had created a separate, but equal status from the transcribers. The gilders were listed next to the name of the one who had transcribed the work. It was uncommon that a transcriber of the text would also be the one responsible for the decoration and the two craftsmen would work in collaboration so that the writing would leave room for the decoration of the work (Salameh 33). The skill of artistry was admired for the way in which it gave importance to the work that was being done. Manuscript Miniatures and Calligraphy The artwork that is found within the pages of the illuminated manuscript of the Manafi’ al-Hayawan is detailed with painstakingly precise calligraphy and illustrations that are referred to as miniatures. The calligrapher of the 12th century was done by hand for each copy with the art form being done by those who have dedicated their lives to the profession. According to Christiane Gruber, “Calligraphers lauded the pen for its ability to produce form, thereby connecting the practice of writing with God’s creative force” (3). For the Islamic tradition, the acceptance that God directed the pen in creating the manuscript allowed for tawhid to be honored. The calligrapher was given status by his ability to facilitate this creation. The artists who were given the task of creating the gilding and illustrations of the work were not quite as elevated as were the calligraphers, but they still held status within the Client Client’s Last Name 7 community. However, they had to be careful in drawing connections between their work and the creation of God. With the tenuous position of Islam that to recreate the natural image, especially the human image, was an affront to God, an artist would need to be careful in making this comparison or face retribution. Animals in Islamic Art Animals have a significant position in Islamic art. Personification of animals can be observed within many of their literary stories with talking birds, horses who are as brave as men, and jackals who serve as protagonists (Canby 44). A variety of symbolism can be found within the use of animals within the art that has been uncovered. It is traditional to find depictions of one animal subduing another, symbolizing strength and the conqueror. The symbols that are used have changed during history, leaving distinctive cultural markers in their wake. The cycle of animals that appear in Islamic art has interesting finds where symbolism is concerned. Pre-Islamic art of the region created by the Sassanians frequently depict the wild boar and is associated with princedom. However, in Islamic art, the motif completely disappears, showing that there became a cultural reason for the boar to not be significant or desired (Gelfer- Jorgenson 111). The ox, the bull and the calf are also frequently seen in Pre-Islamic art often being conquered by a lion. The motif again disappears during the Islamic period of art. According to Gelfer-Jorgenson, a repetition of specific animals began to take place during the Islamic period that must allow for the conclusion that certain animals became more important and symbolic, while others became for some unknown reason, undesirable. The repetitions of these animals numbered in the thousands, with very few other creatures appearing within the art (111). Client Last Name 8 Manafi’ al-Hayawan An 11th century physician by the name Abu Sa id ‘Ubaidallah ibn Bakhtishu wrote a manuscript that described the uses of animals for medicinal and daily purposes. Examples of the types of remedies that were given within the book includes the use of an owl in that one eye will bring on sleep, while the other will drive sleep away. It suggests that if an owl lays two eggs, one must stick a feather to them and the one where the feather falls off will destroy hair, while the one that retains the feather will encourage hair growth (True 250). The Illustrations The illustrations with the Manafi al-Hayawan vary from each copy of the manuscript as differing illustrators were used to create the work. There is much speculation that a great deal of the work was done by Chinese artists as the illustrations seem to have signifiers that suggest an influence of Chinese art. Scholars have yet to determine if the work is the result of origination by Chinese artists during the occupation of Iran by the Mongols, or if it is the result of Iranian art being copied by Chinese artist (Ayatollahi and Haghshen 252). The figures of the animals, birds, and natural environment are drawn with delicate detail and precision delicacy that is symbolic of Chinese art. As seen in the figures of Adam and Eve, the human depictions are also created with the look of typical Chinese art, with a interesting vantage point of influence of the western gothic art. (Figure 2) In looking at the depiction of Adam and Eve, one can see the similarity of to western iconic traditions in that there are halos of gold around the heads of the figures and the perspective is somewhat flattened. This style can be seen in the Russian panel piece in Figure 3, as well in the sculpture of the gothic period that is exampled in Figure 4. The haloed exaggerated image of Client Last Name 9 the figure of man is found throughout the gothic period and is seen reflected in the images from the Manafi al-Hayawan, suggesting the connectivity of the traditions across ethnic lines within the art of the period. Figure 2. Adam and Eve, Maraug, 1294-1299. Figure 3. Russian Icon, Andrey Rubley, Early 15th Century. Client Last Name 10 Figure 4. The Western portal at Chartres Cathedral, 1145. The animals are depicted in ways that are detailed and intricate in the way in which the creatures are composed. As seen in the 12th century work of a lion and lioness (Figure 5), the depiction is given a decided romance that is similar to art found throughout the Middle East, in particular in that of the sexual depictions found in India (Figure 6). Another example of this intimacy that is found within the illustrations is in the portrayal of Two Elephants. The geometry of the work can be considered typical of the Islamic traditions of artwork, as the two elephants intertwine, their skin itself a geometric movement within the composition. With the attention to detail, the sense of personality that is given to the creatures, and the serenity within which the animals are portrayed, the work represents a variety of cultures. However, the predilection of the culture to personify animals within their literature, allows for the conclusion that within these illustrations one finds a sense of personality and distinct emotional context that is intended to give the reader a human point of view when discovering the ‘science’ that the manuscripts intend Client Last Name 11 to impart. Figure 5. 12th Century Figure 6. Kama Sutra Figure 7. Two Elephants, Maragha, Persia, 1290’s. Client Last Name 12 Conclusion The Islamic traditions of art are based on the beliefs that have developed over centuries of Islamic culture. The point of view on the representation of the natural organic form, whether it be in the portrayal of animals or in the depiction of the human body, is held in a delicate balance between the belief that only God can create the form of nature, and the desire to express nature as has been the need of most artists. As seen in the depiction of the elephants and of the lions from the Manafi’ al-Hayawan from manuscripts that date from the 12th century, the portraits are done with a sense of décor, a feeling of personification of the creatures, and with the elegance of a finely tuned craft that is defined by delicate and intricate work. The geometric aesthetic that can be found in the mosaics that are throughout Islamic artwork, found in complex mosaic tile work and in the architectural development of the culture, as well as in plates of geometric designs that are used in décor, can also be seen in the details of the way in which the creatures are composed and designed. As in evidence in the miniature of the elephants, the skin is done with a geometric attention to detail, as well as the compositions themselves holding a sense of the geometric perspective. The work does show the influence of cultures outside of the originating region showing details that are reminiscent of the Chinese artworks as well as European aesthetics from the same period. This suggests that the world experienced an integration of cultures during this time allowing for many points of view to be reflected within the illustrations. The medicinal concepts that are found within the writing may be extremely antiquated and found to be preposterous by modern standards, but the beauty of the illustrations, the whimsy and the emotional content allows for the modern observer to appreciate the skill with which the miniatures were created. Client Last Name 13 Illustrations Figure 1. Illuminated Page of the Qu’ran, found at http://images.search.yahoo.com/I mages/view?back=http%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%2Fimages%3 Fp%3Dilluminated%2BQuran%26ei%3Dutf8%26y%3DSearch%26fr%3Dyfp701&w=57 6&h=672&imgurl=upload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fc%2Fc4%2FA ndalusQuran.JPG&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamicspain.tv%2FArts-and- Science%2FTheCultureofAlAndalus%2FCalligraphy.htm&size=265k&name=AndalusQu ran+JPG&p=illuminated+Quran&oid=e0cc84108b853d6a&fr2=&no=11&tt=53&sigr=12 lq16h3a&sigi=11sev7c1v&sigb=12vm09djag Figure 2. Adam and Eve, Maraug from Mongol Iran, 1294-1299, found at http://en.wikip edia.org/wiki/File:Islamic_Adam_%26_Eve.jpg Figure 3. Russian Icon, Andrey Rubley, Early 15th Century, found at http://en.wikipedia.o rg/wiki/Panel_painting Figure 4. The Western portal at Chartres Cathedral, 1145, found at http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Gothic_art Figure 5. 12th Century, found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukhtishu Figure 6. Kama Sutra, found at http://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view?back=h ttp%3A%2F%2Fimages.search.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%2Fimages%3Fp%3Dkama%2Bsut ra%26save%3D0%26b%3D21%26ni%3D20%26ei%3DUTF-8%26xargs% 3D0%26pstart%3D1%26fr%3Dyfp-t-701&w=350&h=478&imgurl=thet hreewishes.files.wordpress.com%2F2008%2F05%2Fkama_sutra.jpg&rurl=http%3A%2F %2Fthethreewishes.wordpress.com%2Fpage%2F2&size=41k&name=kama+sutra+jpg&p Client Last Name 14 =kama+sutra&oid=9bdaa9934c12dd66&fr2=&no=40&tt=127169&b=21&ni=20&sigr=1 1a31eub0&sigi=11pa5ila6&sigb=13io1na39 Figure 7. Two Elephants, Maragha, Persia, 1290’s, found at http://www.themorgan.org /research/collectionsMedieval.asp Client Last Name 15 Works Cited Apostolos-Cappadona, Diane. Art, Creativity, and the Sacred: An Anthology in Religion and Art. New York: Continuum, 1995. Ayatollahi, Habibollah, and Shermin Hagshensas, The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art. Teheran: Center for International Studies, 2003. Behrens-Abouseif, Doris, and John M. Rogers. Essays in honor of J. M. Rogers. Leiden: Brill, 2004. Canby, Sheila R. Islamic Art in Detail. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2005. Ferber, Stanley. Islam and the Medieval West. Binghamton: State University of York, 1979. Florence, Penny. Sexed Universals in Contemporary Art. Aesthetics today. New York: Allworth, 2004. Gelfer-Jorgenson, Mirjam. Medieval Islamic Symbolism and the Paintings in the Cefalu Cathedral. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. Grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987. Gruber, Christiane J. The Islamic Manuscript Tradition: Ten Centuries of Book Arts in Indiana University Collections. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010 Kochler, Hans. The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity. Wien: Braumuller, 1982. Salameh, Khader, The Qu’ran Manuscripts in the Al-Haram Al-Sharif Islamic Museum. Jerusalem: Garnet Publishing, 2001. True, Webster Prentiss. The Smithsonian: America’s Treasure House. Washington D. C.: Read Country Books, 2007. Read More