Literary Criticism - Assignment Example

LITERARY CRITICISM “Literary criticism is the evaluation, analysis, or interpretation of literary works.” (The Internet Public Library) Criticism has obtained the place of most imperative component of creative writing. Not only in English Literature, but also in all the languages and literatures of the world, criticism has won significant status for centuries. It is a standard scale to measure the quality of a piece of writing by analysing it according to the rules and lines determined including theme, insight and diction. Also, it is criticism by which a reader can estimate the mind and psychology of the writer. Daiches views criticism as a way to appreciate a work of literature. In his words: Criticism may ask no question at all, but simply seek to increase appreciation on the writer’s part by any one of great variety of methods, ranging from objective demonstration of certain qualities to impressionistic revelation.(1990:4). Criticism has been in vogue for last twenty five centuries, and Homer was the first critic the world has ever produced. He emphasized upon the need for inspiration while creating poesy. He used the word enthusiasmor for inspiration. He views the object of poetry as mere pleasure produced by some sort of enchantment. (Quoted in Leavis, 1967). Plato, who is often persuasively reproached with having suggested the banishment of the tragic poets from his ideal “Republic”, is yet the first literary critic worthy to note. Even then, he admits the significance of poetry and is of the opinion that: It is poetry that feeds and waters the passions instead of drying them up and let them rule instead of ruling them up.(Quoted in Preminger,1993). Plato is the champion of the cause of morality, and condemned immoral diction prevailing at that time. He declares tragedy a source of mitigating the passions among youth. The poets, according to him, write such stuff that rise pity and fear and thus emasculated the readers, he opines.( Rees, ) Not only Plato, but also his celebrated pupil and eminent critic Aristotle stresses for morality and ethical values in his Poetics. Aristotle has defined two categories of poetry in his criticism i.e. higher type and lower type. He considers Epic and Tragedy as higher types and Comedy and Parody as lower type of poetry. (Butcher, 2004:3). Aristotle is the founder of the Judicial school of criticism, which emphatically stressed on rhythm, harmony and tranquility in the structure and manners of a poem. A poem must be rhythmic to distinguish it from prose. All the poets of this school of thought, including Horace, Quintillion and others, strictly adhere to the rules and regulations described by Aristotle in Poetics. As ancient Greeks believed in cult of beauty, as their mythology reveals, Horace too strictly adheres to this thought, but connects beauty to moral utility. The principles related to Puritan ethics and moral dogmas are observed by this school. Another school of criticism, i.e. Impressionistic school, differ largely from Judicial one, and considerate on personal impressions and individualism. They take criticism as a healthy exercise of feelings and impressions, and do not accept the rules as followed by the Judicial school of thought as well as Classicism. The poets like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats and others diligently refute the ideas introduced by the classical writers and critics. The classicists, on the other hand, always observe “beauty with morality” slogan while performing anything artistic. As Chaucer’s Canterbury tales mirror. All his sketches contain morality in one way or the other. And they have obtained deep interest in Medieval studies as Evans observes: Much of his work shows his taste for medieval literature, particularly as it was found in France. He delighted in allegory, and in the elaborate sentiments of courtly love. Also, his utmost attention remains towards pilgrim and religious practice. (1990:29) Although, criticism has been in vogue for centuries, yet the word “criticism” is said to be exercised first time by John Dryden, famous poet of 17th century in the preface of his “The State of Innocence.” Mathew Arnold (1864) has viewed a critic as a social benefactor. According to him, the creative artist, no matter how much of a genius, would cut a sorry figure without the critic to come to his aid. (Arnold, 1864: quoted in Bottum, J. 1955:28). Daiches does not wholly agree with the view that criticism must be judged only by the quality of work rather than the circumstances under which it has been produced. He is against of the idea that an author’s life and times should be excluded. In his words: It is true that the quality of a literary work is to be judged on literary grounds alone, and not by a discussion of the author’s life and times, but there are so many peripheral questions that demand investigation as soon as one has raised the question of quality that no critic of intellectual curiosity or liveliness of mind refrain from pursuing them. (1993: 175). Many theories regarding criticism have been introduced by theorists. These include Medievalism, Romanticism, New Classicism, Marxism, Feminism, Psychoanalytic criticism, Sociological criticism and others. Medievalist theory depicts the culture and tradition of Middle Ages where puritan ethics are observed and main focus lies on objectivity rather than subjectivity. Chaucer followed the same pattern in his writing including Canterbury Tales and others. Medievalism was followed by Classical school of thought that begins from Elizabethan age. The greatest personalities in English literature go after this school. Shakespeare, Spencer, Donne, Dryden, Milton and Pope were the torch-bearers of classicism. They created master-pieces that won stupendous applause for the future generations to come. The creations made by Milton, Donne and Pope are based on objectivity. Also these works contain style that is very much verbose, pompous, snobbish and arrogant. They call grass as green attire, bread as the stuff of life, the sun as reddening phoebus and body as bony flesh etc. Medievalism, though not see eye to eye with Classicism, yet it is in sharp contrast with Romanticism that has concentration on personal impressions and individualism. Romantic authors, especially during the first three decades of nineteenth century, have produced literary works which mirror their own personality and surroundings. It is said to be completely based on subjectivity. This theory takes art for art’s sake without any prejudice regarding ethics and morality. Romanticism, T .Singh concludes, actually was a revolt against the prevailing laws in writing. The romantics started using simple words of country life regarding pompous and snobbish diction followed by the Classical writers such as Milton, Pope and Dryden.(1997). Nineteenth and twentieth have been more fertile in respect of introduction of new theories in literature. The arrival of Marxism is the beginning of new era not only in political science and economics, but also in psychology, sociology and literature. It has an endless ramification in the field of criticism. Both Marx and Engels, the founders of Marxism, broke with the traditions of past, in their theories, and linked the work of literature with the prevailing norms and values in the contemporary society. Marx’s conflict theory emphasizes upon the conflict between haves and haves not, who are always at odds with one another. As their interests clash with one another, the situation of conflict always exists in the society. This situation is also evident in literature. Marxism has been quoted by Wellek in these words: Since literature is the transcript of mind, it reflects the Zeigesist, the spirit of the age and society. Man is marching forward, because of the process of the dialectics, which takes into account a gradual evolution of the society and material conditions through certain distinct stages, namely communism, slave society, feudal society, capitalism, imperialism, socialism and finally resulting in scientific communism.(1964). Nineteenth century produced wonderful women writers and novelists, and they created magnificent pieces of art. These writers include Jane Austen, George Eliot, Emily Bronte, Charlotte Bronte, Mary Shelley and others. It gave encouragement to the females to step forward in the open competition of writing gorgeous works. This not only paved the way towards the active participation of women in the field of writing, but also it caused the beginning of Feminist school of thought, which raised a strong voice against male domination in different fields of life. Zaidi views: The theorists who brought the significance of women’s participation in the social construction programmes to the limelight were declared as rebels and then liberals and Marxists. With the passage of time, these theorists got the title of Feminists. The feminists perspective resembles with Marxism as both these schools of thoughts were founded against the inequality and domination of some other strata existing in the society. (2006:6). Feminist perspective demands equal rights as individuals of society as well as freedom from men’s domination in their individual and collective life. The theory is based on the views of Shulamit Reinharz, Feminist theorist, in her well-known Feminist Methods in Social Research presents the feminist methodology. The four main points of the theory include: Positive social change in society Representing human diversity To reveal the fact that Feminism is a perspective like structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism and Conflict Theory That Woman should be granted equal status as member of society. Feminist writers including Virginia Woolf, Mev Miller and Margaret Drabble produced remarkable works. Woolf’s novels very beautifully depict how a man’s mind works and takes drastic changes in a single moment. Drabble also portrayed the contemporary world and society especially in her famous “ The Ice Age” (1976), in which she has narrated the significant role played by women within the changing scenario of modern society. New classic approach is also one of the most influential theories of modern times. It was the movement that started in the late 1920s and 1930s and originated in reaction to traditional criticism. Siegel defines the new classicist theory in these words: New critics saw as largely concerned with matters extraneous to the text, e.g., with the biography or psychology of the author or the works relationship to literary history. New Criticism proposed that a work of literary art should be regarded as autonomous, and so should not be judged by reference to considerations beyond itself. A poem consists less of a series of referential and verifiable statements about the real world beyond it, than of the presentation and sophisticated organization of a set of complex experiences in a verbal form (quoted in Hawkes, pp. 150-151). Major figures of New Criticism include I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks, David Daiches, William Empson, Murray Krieger, John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, F. R. Leavis, Robert Penn Warren, W. K. Wimsatt, R. P. Blackmur, Rene Wellek, Ausin Warren, and Ivor Winters. Another theory, which leave indelible imprints on literature also include cultural theory. Cultural theory has been derived from the works of socio-cultural theorists. These theorists, including Wilson, Burke, Fox, Auden, Lewis, Daiches and Caudwell appreciate poeic works from sociological point of view. They contradict with the New Classicists who take the study of society as mere the wastage of time.Terry Eagleton, has explained cultural theory in these words: "Cultural theory as we have it promises to grapple with some fundamental problems, but on the whole fails to deliver. It has been shamefaced about morality and metaphysics, embarrassed about love, biology, religion and revolution, largely silent about evil, reticent about death and suffering, dogmatic about essences, universals and foundations, and superficial about truth, objectivity and disinterestedness. This, on any estimate, is rather a large slice of human existence to fall down on. It is also, as we have suggested before, rather an awkward moment in history to find oneself with little or nothing to say about such fundamental questions." (After Theory,2003). BIBLIOGRAPHY Bottum, J (1955). What T.S. Eliot Almost Believed. Published in First Things. Butcher, S. H. (2004). Translation of Poetics eBooks@Adelaide Collins,. (1990). Black Feminist Thought. Patricia Hill. Daiches, David (1993). Critical Approaches to Literature. Longman Group UK Limited, Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow. Eagleton, Terry (2003). After Theory. Quoted in Wikipedia.com Evans, Ifor (1990). A Short History of English Literature. Penguin Books, Bernard Bergonzi. Goodman, W.R. (2005) Practical Criticism. New Kitab Mahal, Lahore. Leavis, F.R. (1967). Literary Criticism and Philosophy. Preminger, Alex (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press.    Rees, R.J. (1998). An Introduction to English Literature. Published in the Literary Journal, Penguin Books. Siegel, Dr. Kristi, (2002). Introduction to Modern Literary Theory. Singh, T (1997). A Short History of English Literature. Vanguard Publishers, Kolkata. Wellek, Rene (1964). Concepts of Criticism. Edited and Introduction by Stephen G. Nichols, Jr. New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, 1963. Read More