English Romantic Literature - Book Report/Review Example

English Romantic Literature Religion has always taken a significant role in the regulation of sexual conduct. In the past centuries, social norms and prescriptions were mainly founded on the teachings of the church. Defying these religious doctrines with regards sexuality and the conduct of relationships between male and female often had dire consequences. The intellectuals, produced by different generations, however, valiantly tried to oppose - either explicitly or implicitly - the church’s autocracy over human actions and decisions - with religion sometimes successful in silencing its critics; in various occasions, the intellectual armed only with pen and ink, was able to challenge or transform mores and conventions. Although it cannot be argued that literature often has the power to transform social order, works that challenge traditions act as a symbol and a basis of defiance. Two of such works, “The Monk” by M.G. Lewis and “Lamia” by John Keats – with Lewis explicitly questioning the church’s dominion over moral order and Keats’s implicit sympathy and ambivalence towards ‘evil’ and immorality – were able to bring to the forefront the issue of religious control over human emotions. Lewis’ inversion and subversion of the traditional roles of religion and sex in ‘The Monk’, and Keats’s ambiguity on his treatment of evil in ‘Lamia’ both show that religion cannot defy human emotions such as love and sexuality. The blatant sexuality depicted in Lewis’ ‘Monk’ had stirred controversy from its inception in 1796 until this day. This was the consequence of Lewis’ thesis that the Catholic Church, with its repression of sexuality and control of sexual conduct had produced more deviant sexual behaviors (Blakemore 521). Sexual aberrations, both depicted by the masses, the sovereigns and the aristocrats and the church’s ‘celibates’, sprang forth from the church’s ‘unnatural’ prescription of celibacy and stringent sexual conduct which, for the liberals of Lewis’ time, violate human nature (Blakemore 521-522). Peter Brooks asserts that the depiction of ‘The Monk’ as a form of rebellion against church authorities as well as its religio-philosophical significance is “one of the first and most lucid contextualizations of life in a world where reason has lost its prestige” (Brooks 249). The defiance of “The Monk” against the Catholic clergy is clearly illustrated through its protagonist, Ambrosio who is revered for his strict adherence to chastity (Lewis 6). Lewis initially depicts Ambrosio as a ‘virgin’ whose innocence of the world and its iniquities made him vulnerable to temptations. What is interesting to note here is Lewis’ misogynic comparison of Ambrosio to a female chaste who does not recognize “what consists the difference of Man and Woman” (Lewis 17). This is of course, one of the significant points Lewis conveys – that the Catholic Church’s sexual prescriptions through the vows of celibacy and chastity ‘feminize’ members of the priesthood as well as deem them susceptible to hypocrisy and temptation. This contention is further delineated in the novel when Rosario, disguised as a male priest, discloses to Ambrosio, that he is a woman. For Blakemore (522-523), this illustrates Lewis’ delineation of ‘sexual ambiguity’ and ‘confusion of gender roles’ in the novel, where sexual awareness is akin to the ‘forbidden apple’ which entices the ‘virgin’ monk to commit iniquities. Lewis’ assertions of sexual awareness and gender roles in this novel, clearly defy the church’s prescription of the sexual roles of men and women as well as the church’s unequivocal doctrine with regards celibacy in the priesthood. Lewis’ blatant inversion of gender roles and sexual prescription strongly illustrates his subversion towards gender and sexual stereotypes that the church had proliferated as well as promulgated. Blakemore for instance, points out that the words ‘virtue, honor, chaste, purity and shame’ have gender connotations. Lewis, however, inverts his usage of these words describing Ambrosio as ‘pure and virtuous’ where the word ‘pure’ has feminine connotations (Lewis 421). Lewis’ sympathetic depictions of Agnes and Marguerite, for instance, further illustrate his liberal approach of women’s sexual and gender roles. Although both women bear illegitimate children and suffer abuse, Marguerite defies this abuse by stabbing her cruel husband to death. Ellis contends that these characters are 1‘rewarded with domestic happiness at the end of their respective stories’ (131). In addition, although the two women prove that they are also susceptible to seduction, they maintain their virtue and honor. Marguerite, for instance, states that although ‘passion over-powered [her] virtue,’ she refused to sink into ‘the degeneracy of vice’ (Lewis 122). Lewis’ sympathy towards Matilda, whose uninhibitions towards sex qualify her as the most sinful female in the story, further cements the author’s subversion towards the gender stereotypes brought forth by Catholicism. When Ambrosio censures Matilda calling her a prostitute, the novel’s narrator defends her stating that Matilda’s ‘paramour’ has forgotten that Matilda ‘forfeited her claim to virtue’ for his sake, ‘and his only reason for despising her was that she had loved him too well’ (244). This suggests ‘The Monks’ undermining of sexual and gender roles, proposing that in some instances, non-conformist and transgressive conducts conforms to virtue. On the other hand, the educated and aristocrat Antonia, whose background and upbringing are aimed at making her a proper lady, resulted to her credulity and unquestioning trust towards Ambrosio who rapes and murders her in the end (Brewer 194). Lewis’ utilization of gender and religious inversions culminates with the restoration of the ‘natural order’ (Blakemore 535). Written at the height of the French revolution, Lewis is adamant and unyielding against forces which conspire to proliferate the ‘unnatural order’ of things. In the end, the central characters salvage their masculinity while the ‘aberrant’ women are castigated with punishments. This suggests that the feminization of the males in Catholicism, through celibacy and other sexual prescriptions result to the demonization, deviant fantasies and superstition. Lewis asserts that the human desires, sexuality and the capacity to love are part of the higher ‘natural order’ which should not be repressed or limited. Lewis’ rebellion against sexual roles and traditions of his time are aimed to topple the prevailing moral structure that defies human nature. This is achieved through the author’s inversion and distortion of sex and religion, violations of the pure and the virginal and his depiction of Catholicism as ‘dirty and corruptible’ (Blakemore 536). While Lewis explicitly illustrates his aversion towards religious sexual prescriptions and gender roles, John Keats in ‘Lamia’ employs ambiguity in his depiction of what categorically is evil or sexually deviant. Keats’ ambiguity suggests that no one holds the monopoly on morality as well as sexual conduct because love and sex are natural and universal human emotions. Bernstein (175) asserts that Lamia is ‘circular rather than linear’ and ‘inconclusive rather definitive.’ Some scholars and readers see this as a form of weakness as the lack of resolution usually leave the readers ‘a sense of non-ending’ even after the narrative has been brought to a close. For some, according to Bernstein, Keats’ poem is a labyrinthine maze ‘in which the reader searches for the center (or meaning)’ but is left frustrated (175). Critics also see ‘Lamia’s’ complexity as a ‘flaw’ and its ambiguous morals fail to elicit sympathies. This ambiguity and Lamia’s labyrinthine allusion to traps and mazes is prominent throughout the text more often utilized Lamia, Lycius or the state of their relationships. Bernstein asserts that the most explicit of this labyrinth is captured in the simile which compares Lamia’s crest to ‘Ariadne’s tiar’ (1 58). This is an allusion to the setting in Crete of the legend of the Minotaur, also a labyrinth in Greek mythology. Other figurative allusions that enhance ambiguity and convolution in the poem include Lamia referring to herself as a ‘wreathed tomb’ (1-38) which foreshadows the dangers of getting romantically or sexually involved with her. She is also alluded to as the ‘cirque-couchant’ indirectly referring to her ‘circular and serpentine’ (1-46) nature as well as in ‘a Gordian shape’ (1-47) (Bernstein 179). Bernstein, however, agrees that the only definitive in Keats’ treatment of the ‘evil’ Lamia is that it ‘defies certainty’ (191) suggesting that Keats employed ambiguity as a paradox of morality and conduct. The ending of Keats’ poem for example does not bring to light the conflict between Lamia and Apollonius as there exists no conflict between them. This also suggests that Keats does not take sides on which moral order to sympathize onto, yet, also hints of sympathy towards Lamia. This ambiguity and inconclusive treatment of sexual conduct, morality and religious prescriptions only imply that Keats is amenable to love’s power – that love defies conventions and love is enough to be the foundations of morals and conduct. Jane Chambers argues that as Keats’ borrowed some of his ideas from Burton, the thematic development of Lamia parallels that of Burton’s. This implies that Keats asserts Burton’s contention that love is powerful, ‘most evident in human realm’ yet manifests itself in nature and ‘incorporeal substances’ - further delineating that love ‘hath a large dominion’ over us and the rest of natural world (Chambers 586). Lamia’s appeal, for instance, for her to take “A Woman’s shape” (I, 118) springs forth for the sake of love (I – 65). Lamia’s pleading is to make it possible for her to consummate her love and desires to someone who is of a different plane of existence. This shows that love consequently results to powerlessness even of the immortals. Throughout the text, Keats proposes that love ‘corrupt[s] judgment’ (Chambers 591) as love’s power to transform the behavior of even the immortals is manifested in Lamia’s actions. Lamia’s decision to betray the nymph and hide her true nature from Lycius, though she knows of the dire consequences, attests to Lamia’s true love for Lycius. Although many would suggest that Lamia’s actions were confirmations of her ‘wickedness,’ Keats’ hinting of empathy towards her suggests that the author sees her as a ‘victim.’ Furthermore, Lamia suffering from the ‘scarlet pain’ (I-54) which she patiently endures during her transformation is a process that ‘naturally involves a good deal of suffering (Fogle in Chambers 592). Chambers also notes that even if Lamia exhibits selfishness and even cruelty at times, other major characters are likewise flawed and depicts the same ‘human’ emotions (II, 69 f.). Keats’ depiction of Lamia as a victim of love, the author alludes her to mythological entities which connote the notion of love. Cynthia, the moon goddess has been alluded to by Keats in the phrase ‘silver moons’ while his complex allusions to Circe, a beautiful witch who transform Odysseus men to pigs, suggests that Lamia’s exploits are a result of love (Chambers 592). This is also witnessed in the poem when the scene shifts location to Corinth, love’s power to transform. The union of Lamia and Lycius brings forth transformations – both spiritual and emotional that he puts aside his passion for philosophy to become a passionate lover. Evert believes that Lycius’ behavior proves that there are more powerful forces that govern his being aside from the spell brought forth by Lamia (Evert 27). Keats on the other hand seems to suggest that Lycius is particularly vulnerable to love’s power as a consequence of his nature and circumstances. While he is able to moderate his passions, he is unable to do so when he falls in love. Keats’ depiction of Lycius as a youth who cannot control his overwhelming declarations of love and falls helpless by thought of losing his love only suggests that, even with Lycius’ circumstance as a learned and cultured individual, he still falls prey to ‘immorality’. In the end, although Apollunius obliterates Lamia, he fails to destroy the real ‘villain’ that Keats allude to – the ‘ambiguous Angel’ which is love suggesting that any kind of authoritative prescriptions on sexual relationships or control over someone’s emotions cannot prevent human nature from following the wishes of their hearts. Love triumphs in the end. Hence, religion and human laws may impede the nature of humans from manifesting itself in our society; they may triumph in the end. As social norms and conduct transform, we can observe that they are mainly manifestations amidst the waning and disappearance of the power of the church and traditions to limit emotions. Keats and Lewis have clearly depicted this. Lewis’ rebellion towards the authorities and Keats’ moral ambiguousness revealed to us that nature often prevails. . WORKS CITED Bernstein, Gene. Keats' 'Lamia': The Sense of a Non-Ending. Papers on Language and Literature. 15 (1979) Blackmore, Steven. "Matthew Lewis's Black Mass: Sexual, Religious Inversion in The Monk.." Studies in the Novel 30(1998): 521-540. Brewer, William. "Transgendering in Matthew Lewis's The Monk." Gothic Studies 6(2004): 192 - 207. Brooks, Peter. Virtue and Terror: The Monk. ELH 40. 1973. 249 Chambers, Jane. "'For Love's Sake': Lamia and Burton's Love Melancholy.." Studies in English Literature 22(1982): Ellis, Kate Ferguson. The Contested Castle: Gothic Novels and the Subversion of Domestic Evert, Walter H. Aesthetic and Myth in the Poetry of Keats. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, Fogle, Richard Harter. The Imagery of Keats and Shelley; A Comparative Study. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1949.` Ideology (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), p. 131. Keats, John, and Will Hicok Low. Lamia. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co, 1885. Lewis, Matthew. The Monk. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Read More