Writing the Modern World, 1600-1800 OROONOKO Aphra Behn, HAMLET Shakespeare, THE MAN OF MODE George Etherege - Essay Example

?‘Oroonoko’ (Aphra Behn) ''Texts in this period are less interested in performances as such than in what happens when those performances break down or fail'' It is a fact that one of Aphra Behn’s texts, known as “Oroonoko”, was not well-received by the English public when she wrote it in the seventeenth century. Aphra Behn’s profession of being a poet, translator, professional playwright and novelist would lasted for nearly twenty years. Between 1670 and 1689, Aphra Behn would be recognized as a literary influence in London, regularly earning from her writings. Though she published her works many years after the death of the great queen Elizabeth, Aphra Behn, as well as other playwrights were still controlled by the regulations that governed theatre when Queen Elizabeth was still alive. Aphra Behn grew to be less respected figure in the literary-world after her death in 1689. Her carefree reputation, fierce independence as an individual, and lasting belief in the Old Rule resulted in her dislodgment from a progressively more patriarchal and straitlaced world. Additionally, the indistinctness of her most popular book ‘Oroonoko’ could easily be viewed as an assertion of women's right to express their beliefs and have them respected. Her book also seemed to air publicly the shortcomings of British society, and colonial violence. People in that era were not ready to believe that Black Africans had any characteristics that could be defined as being human-yet Aphra Behn showed them as chivalrous people. Her political concepts and convictions in the tale went against the accepted norms at the time, and pitted her against the English society. Approving of an African slave and distorting the phony and allegedly chivalrous and selfless character of English Christians and the true rulers of the British society was viewed as a literary crime that resulted in the text being disregarded. The fact that Aphra Behn was a female writer was an additional reason for her works being viewed as insubstantial (Salvaggio 1993). Even though it was not openly acknowledged, Aphra Behn could be viewed as the original British abolitionist in the records of English literature. Even critical studies that were written later would disregard her literary production. Though it was the original written novel in English records, ‘Oroonoko’ was to be left out of the compilation of English literature for an assortment of excuses from publishers as well as editors because she clearly went against the prevailing cultural beliefs and accepted British practices, even though they were wrong. Seeking to address the evils of slavery in a society that benefitted immensely from this institution is one reason that contributed to Aphra Behn’s ostracism. Some of those she disagreed with included eighteenth century writers such as Henry Fielding, Alexander Pope, and Samuel Richardson. These respected writers recorded their disparagement of Aphra Behn, as well as her writings (Todd 1992). On the other hand, one American citizen Thomas Southerne, was influenced enough by Aphra Behn’s works to use them in a tragedy known as ‘Oroonoko’. This was to be Southerne’s adaptation which maintained the theme of Aphra Behn’s original work with the exception that it made Imoinda, the main character, white and not black. The expression ‘Royal Slave’ being excluded from the heading provided the evidence that ‘Oroonoko’ was no longer considered as a literary work centred on anti-slavery. Oroonoko became an individual, and not merely the human symbol for the institution of slavery. In Aphra Behn’s case, she was more interested in the quality of her literary productions than in the reception by the public (Todd 1999). If she were more interested in popularity, she would not have tackled such controversial subjects in her works. The exposure of many cowardly qualities that existed among the creators of the British colonial expansion program resulted in slanderous attacks on both Aphra Behn and her book. People did not want to believe that their leaders had any vestiges of any unmanly characteristics. Moreover, it is easy to perceive that the writer was not aiming to lay the blame on the dominant race. Instead, she was keen to show that vices are an ordinary characteristic of each and every race. Oroonoko’s grandfather's disgraceful behaviour towards his grandchild and his cruel expulsion of Imoinda provide the evidence that thoughtless persons are present in all classes of the society. It can be stated that despite all that detaches Behn's African sovereign and the British captain, both men are still identical in many ways. They are portrayed as being crafty, unprincipled and disloyal, laying bare the basic mechanisms of the slave-trade that was the natural result of the conspiracy of greedy people from various ethnicities. ''For authors of this period, rebellion makes for a good story but in the end, it cannot be allow to succeed” Even in the 1600s, the rules that governed theatre when Queen Elizabeth reigned still prevailed. Even though writers in Elizabethan England fared better than they would have if they wrote their works just some generations later when the Puritans were in control, they still were not free to completely express their sentiments. The Elizabethan Playwright created plays to suit the desires of a patron or company of players. When the plays were finished, the majority of playwrights would lose control over their masterpieces. The plays became the property of the companies that employed them. Apart from not owning their own works, the playwrights also had no control over when their plays would be printed, or if they would earn any royalties from them. Indeed, many times their plays were printed without their authorisation, and without any mention of the true author (Canfield and Sneidern 2001). Writers also had to endure a lot of censorship, particularly when writing on sensitive subjects such as government principles and regulations. If the subject concerned or depicted the activities of an important government official, the writer would leave it or avoid any sensitive subjects as these could result in his death. For instance, any subject that ridiculed Queen Elizabeth, or criticized her government’s policies was avoided. Politics and religious matters were the two main issues that resulted in plays being heavily censored. In the absence of 21st century assets such as television, the theatre is the one area, in Elizabethan England, where people could be influenced for or against the contentious issues of the day. It was thus rigorously monitored by the governing authorities. All the plays would be inspected by the Master of Revels before they were performed before eager audiences. ‘‘Women in this period gain power by adopting and subverting the language of men'' In ‘Oroonoko’, Aphra Behn authorises herself to give details concerning a slave’s existence, because of her encounters with him (Behn and Todd 2004). Behn ascertains her authority in the first verses and reminds her readers of her function as the narrator by talking about her individual part in the story. "I was personally an eyewitness to a majority of what you will find written in this book”, she declares, “and what I did not personally observe, I heard from the main character himself, who provided me with the experiences of his youth ..." (Behn and Todd 2004). In this opening, Behn shows the veracity of her authority on the subject in question. She makes use of the first person point of view, and asserts that she was actually a personal friend of the character known as Oroonoko. In the remainder of Oroonoko's tale, Behn was "an eyewitness". Behn recognises that it is she who documented the narration, using her own words. In other words, the storyteller is not lone a character of the tale, but its reliable author. Behn shows herself to be a dependable source of information about the life of Oroonoko because of the esteem she has for him and the fact that he trusts her to write about his experiences in an objective manner. In Elizabethan England, many, including women themselves, did not believe that a woman could show such objectivity and prowess in the literary arts. Behn showed an ability to write the accounts of others’ lives in a way that was believed to be the preserve of men. The fact that Oroonoko, though a slave, thought so highly of her skills that he entrusted her with his experiences, shows that she was above the women of her day in this aspect (Wiseman 1996). There are some three classes in the pecking order of the colony, and by stressing on her elevated social status; Behn aligns herself with the central power in the protectorate, who were the British colonials. This fact alone increases her legitimacy. In the factions of Natives, British citizens, and slaves, exists the section of gender which permits the author to disassociate herself from the operations of 'the men' sometimes. Aphra Ben is portraying herself as a man would; which was something many women in her era who were writers did (Beckles 1999). She chose her roles according to how they would reflect on her at the time. Behn understood that her sex was an hindrance that would cause her work not to be taken seriously (Sussman 1997). In many instances, she made use of gender to get flexibility as a narrator in Surinam’s power framework. The power configurations of Coramantien and Surinam seem fixed, but Behn gives allegiance to different cultures and powers to keep her audience on her side. The narrator sides with Oroonoko when this position affords her some importance, and gives authority to her narrative as a person who witnessed and heard the important events first hand (Link 1968). However, when Oroonoko is in the forest and has grown to be a menace, the narrator states that she was caught up in the activities of the ladies. When she desires the narrator to be connected with the functions that were taking place, she shows her as a woman of significance, and allies her with the "we" that rule the island. Moreover, when she desires to excuse the narrator from some disagreeable action like the thrashing of Oroonoko, she faults the governing white males, and shows the narrator as being safely among the women, who are justified in escaping, as they wished to preserve their lives. Such actions ensure that the reader is constantly on Aphra Behn’s side (Goreau 1980). The relationship between seeing and understanding in texts Aphra Behn basically published her plays and books under the same rules that had governed Shakespeare’s works just some years before. There are facts that existed in Elizabethan England that make it difficult for one to understand the plays that were written then, in the way that their authors meant for them to be portrayed. There were the ordinary strictures, such as the presence of patrons, and the cost of staging a play, that controlled the playwrights. Then there was the daily life. Any actor or person who wishes to understand the style of Elizabethan clothes should set aside all concepts of minimalism (Duffy 1977). The British citizens of that era believed that loud colours, complicated trimmings, and disproportionate padding were necessary in formal dress. The padding in an assortment of garments was so full that all outer resemblance to the human shape was totally lost in both women and men (Lewcock 1996). This may have contributed to the plays in unforeseen ways. A culture that chooses to focus on things that do not exist in the human form will not be averse to believing in ghosts or sprites, and including them in plays. In Elizabethan England, the type of dress worn anywhere was not dependent the time or occasion. A man could present himself at court in his most garish clothes at any time of the day. The clothes were hardened and stuffed so that the wearer could not move easily. The odd movements of the actors of that era, or their jokes concerning clothes, would be lost on a 21st century audience because of this. In Elizabethan England, a man in full dress had laces all over is body. Most times, he could not wear his clothes without help. Wearing trendy clothes, or "making-ready," was such a difficult task that, once finished, most people preferred to stay in their fashionable clothes for as long as possible. Then there was personal hygiene. In the Elizabethan era, there were sicknesses being transmitted from city to city, such as dysentery, the black plague, and typhoid. To cure these, the physicians used tobacco, arsenic, and dried toad. Many citizens died from their unclean environment. People hardly ever washed their hands, brushed teeth, or took a bath. In the Elizabethan Era, physicians followed the precepts of ancient medicine, such as the suggestions of Galen and Hypocrites. Peasants took two or three baths annually, while the upper class citizens bathed every other week. Hair was commonly rinsed separately with a Lye solution (Mortimer 2012). As no toilet paper existed, citizens made use of hay, grass, or straw. Flowers, perfumes, and an assortment of herbs were used to keep bed chambers and bodies smelling clean. All these aspects must be taken into consideration when seeking to understand what Aphra Behn really meant for her text on ‘Oroonoko’ to be depicted as. Many would be offended if asked to portray, in an authentic manner, the characters of Aphra Behn’s play, as they would have to remain unclean for a number of days in order to get the real feel and portray it in an authentic manner (Mortimer 2012). References Beckles, H. (1999) Centering woman: gender discourses in Caribbean slave society, James Currey. Behn, A. & Todd, J. (2004) Oroonoko, Penguin Classics, London. Canfield, J.D. & Sneidern M.V. (2001) The Broadview anthology of restoration & early eighteenth-century English drama, Broadview, London. Duffy, M. (1977) The passionate shepherdess: Aphra Behn 1640–1689, Penguin Classics, London. Goreau, A. (1980) Reconstructing Aphra: a social biography of Aphra Behn, Plymouth, Oxford. Lewcock, D. (1996) Aphra Behn studies: more for seeing than hearing: Behn and the use of theatre, Cambridge UP, Cambridge. Link, F.M. (1968) Aphra Behn, Twayne, New York. Mortimer, I. (2012) The time traveller’s guide to Elizabethan England, Bodley Head, London. Salvaggio, R. (1993) "Aphra Behn's love: fiction, letters, and desire," rereading Aphra Behn: history, theory, and criticism. Ed. Heidi Hutner, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Summers, M. (1913) Aphra Behn: works, Plymouth, London. Sussman, C. (1997) The other problem with women: reproduction and slave culture in Aphra Behn's Oroonoko – Oroonoko, London. Todd, J. Ed. (1992) Aphra Behn: oroonoko, the rover, and other works, Penguin Books, London. Todd, J.M. (1999) The secret life of Aphra Behn, Pandora, London. Wiseman, S.J. (1996) Aphra Behn, Plymouth, U.K. Read More