Policing Crime and Disorder Hot Spots - Annotated Bibliography Example

Annotated bibliography Braga, A. A., & Bond, B. J. (2008). Policing crime and disorder hot spots: A randomized controlled trial. Criminology, 46(3), 577-607. This article was based on the strategies used by police to control crime. The author focuses on the strategies applied by the New York Police to reduce crime in instances where psychological and social problems are intertwined. The author argues that if police would focus on controlling minor offences like prostitution, pan handling, and graffiti then it is easy to control serious problems such as violence, and as such reduce fear among communities. The article weighs the strengths of the fixing the windows approach as used. It analyses the works of different regarding the approach. The major limitations in the study of the effectiveness of the broken windows approach as in most studies include; firstly, most evaluations suffer the non-experimental and quasi-experimental designs leading to causation inferences as a result of observing trends in police actions and accounting for the rival causal factors by means of statistical controls and model specification exercises. Secondly, most studies use higher number of misdemeanor arrests as a proxy measure for policing disorder interventions which is a simple dummy variable representing a package of policing disorder interventions. This approach adopted by the NYPD deals which with physical and social disorders have been termed as fixing the windows approach and have been applied as a major element in crime prevention and management. The strategy has been recommended by most crime scholars and has been discredited at an equal measure as revealed in the article. The article analyses the strategies employed by the law enforcement agencies including “order maintenance” and “zero tolerance” policing strategies in which the police attempt to maintain order and reduce crime through community cooperation by addressing the most recurring problems. The article cites a study in Lowell, Massachusetts which enhances our knowledge on the effects of policing disorder on crime by use of a randomized block experimental design plus qualitative signs on local dynamics to assess the effects of policing disorder in major crime and disorder hot-spot locations in Lowell, Massachusetts. The study highlights the causal channels of major crime prevention mechanisms involving policing disorder approaches, increased misdemeanor arrests, situational prevention strategies, and social service actions. The authors support application of problem-oriented policing framework. They argue that strongest crime-prevention gains could be realized by embracing situational deterrence strategy instead of social service strategies or misdemeanor arrests. The findings from the article contribute immensely to knowledge in criminology, especially new ways of handling crimes in a society characterized by personal freedoms, rights and various challenges that can lead to psychological, physical and social disorder. Ideally, the article reveals nature of crimes and underlying cases. In addition, it reveals effective strategies that can be used to deter crime by handing causes and not the symptoms. The article was particularly chosen for the bibliography because of the methodological research that targeted different scholarly works that deeply analyses the strengths and weaknesses of their recommendations. The article goes a mile further in statistical analysis of the results obtained from the different works to give a comprehensive understanding of community policing theory. In many instances, policing strategies have miserably failed because formulators and implementers failed to comprehend underlying causes. The article revealed underlying causes to crimes in world societies, and proven ways in which crime could be reduced. Cope, N. (2004). 'Intelligence Led Policing Or Policing Led Intelligence?': Integrating Volume Crime Analysis Into Policing. British Journal of Criminology, 44(2), 188-203. This article analyses the integration of crime analysis into policing by outlining the importance of analysis of intelligence led policing. The paper argues that developmental training of both the police force and its analysis is vital for a productive working system. The article is based from a research focusing on intelligence led policing and the due process of information channeling through intelligence units both in an urban and a county force. The authors conduct a study focusing on observation of participants over a two month period within local units. According to the author, crime analysis incorporates collection and review of information into manageable summaries for instance, the maps or network charts which facilitate the interpretation. Once the nature of the crimes problem is well comprehended, the recommendations on the action to be taken can follow logically. The author further points out the challenges of the process of crime analysis encountered through his research for example non experience of the civilian crime analysts and police officers being uncomfortable with recommendations from non-police personnel. The authors for example point out the extent to which some of the crime analysts were intimidated by the police organizations, lack of understanding and skills from the police personnel. The police more over lack the understanding of the analysis and the potential support it could offer in prevention and monitoring of crime. For instance, he notes that most urban police officers in all ranks lacked proper training on analytical roles and functions leading to little understanding of the information technology associated with the analysis and its capability. The article defines crime analysis as the process of identifying patterns and the relationship between crime data its different sources, and using it to prioritize and target the activities of the police. The uneven distribution of crime in terms of space and place can be used to theoretically draw inferences from the crime patterns which can be used in establishment of a criterion through the allocation of police resources could be based upon. The paper is based upon a qualitative research in two police forces and entails an ongoing research of volume crime analysis and its importance in supporting a model of policing directed by informative analysis and intelligence. The article outlines a sound methodology of research and data acquisition starting from the acquisition of information, analyzing intelligence, review and prioritizing, auctioning intelligence analysis through tasking meetings and the final evaluation of the action impact. According to the article, intelligence information can be either beneficial or destructive to policing depending on how it is applied in daily operations. Cope discovered that when police fails to comprehend intelligence information, their actions result in regrettable mistakes. Nonetheless, well-comprehended intelligence information can be a tool for strategizing and aligning police operations to fit societal security needs. In other words, results of police operations are closely linked with degree of comprehension of intelligence information. In many instances, police operations have led to serious mistakes, prompting the public to question how information is collected and applied. By carefully reading the article, one can clearly trace police operations to understanding of intelligence information. The article was particularly chosen for bibliography owing to the methodological research approach it employs. In the study of criminology, the article sheds light on crime pattern analysis, action implementation procedure, methods of improving policing and its efficiency. Reenen, P. V. (2010). From policing the garbage can to garbage can policing. Policing and Society, 20(4), 459-479. Reenen’s article focuses on the efforts to implement reforms in the police sector. The article is based on a study conducted in Latin America. The article borrows from the garbage can decision theory developed by Cohen et al. (1972), which explains the prima facie irrational results in the decision making process by using the anarchic point of view perspective. An organizational anarchy is an organization where the problems, analysis and decision makers fail to be organized in a logical order leading to poor results or collapse of a system. The article deals with the issue of garbage can decision making in two levels, in the first level the government decision making could be described in terms of the garbage can model. This is the higher level which creates the decision and conditions by which the police work. The second level focuses on the police force itself, this level has far reaching impacts leading to the policemen and women tackling their problems head on (on the streets).The article analyses the concept approach of garbage can decision making to yield new insights on both level, the government and the level of the police. The article using this concept of garbage can, argues that the more garbage there is, the more desperate the task of the police becomes. The policing garbage can involve illegal means up to torture and even illegal killings. It is argued that effects of the garbage can leads to the police abandoning its goals and turns into criminal organizations which try to meet its own interests and to make personal gains at the expense of solving crimes and protecting the population. The article studies influence between the criminal world and policing. Reenen based the article in the assumption that if police fails to adhere to professional codes of ethics, then they are more likely to be converted into dangerous criminals. Ideally, police have to be faithful to society and avoid striking a compromise with criminals. The authors argue that long exposure to criminal world would influence greatly on individual aspects of police officers. Police officers must be individuals who have exemplary moral values. Otherwise, application of a ‘criminal mind’ to trace criminal activities will transform into behaviors and habits, which will manifest itself in police officers engaging in criminal activities. In the past, numerous incidences have been uncovered where police officers worked hand-in-hand with criminals to oppress the public whom they were tasked with responsibility of protecting. The article concluded that avoidance of conversion into crime could be achieved by embracing professionalism and imparting high standards of morals to police recruits. On the decision making level, the article sheds light on the Latin American politics, lack of long term strategies to handle major social and economic policies in most countries of the region. The author cites political entrepreneurship and political corruption as a major factor deterring the confidence in the public institutions, reduces interpersonal trust and regime legitimacy. The garbage can decision making is unable to address the immediate problems by the police leading to more desperation in the police tasks. The article addresses the garbage can effects ranging from avoidance reactions, ad hoc decision making, theatrical enforcement and selective policing. The article further demonstrates the irreversibility of the situation showing that once the garbage can policing have come into effect it is extremely difficult to contain the situation. The article was chosen for bibliography due to its wide scope and analytical methodology and its flow of ideologies. It emphasizes on the reason why the police force ought to remain as people of integrity and why the decision making organs should be sensitive towards the policies pertinent to the police force to avoid the garbage can effect in policing. It contributes effectively towards knowledge of structures and activities within criminal justice system. In addition, it provides knowledge concerning nature of engagement between criminals and police officers. The reader can easily note the importance of maintaining professionalism and moral codes in the criminal justice system by considering influence of criminals on police officers. Professional codes of ethics are imperative to creating excellence in police service and ensuring that security needs of members of society are considered. Shilston, T. G. (2012). Mawby, R. I. and Yarwood, R. (Eds) (2010). Rural policing and policing the rural: a constable countryside?. Policing , 6(2), 218-219. The article sheds light on the works of Shilston (2012) and Yarwood & Mawby(2010). The book addresses a wide scope of topics ranging from policing in rural parts of France, narcotics in the British countryside and the protection of elephants in Africa. The article focuses on the challenges faced by police officers operating in rural areas. The author claims that due to globalization and urbanization, policing in rural areas has been forgotten. The authors argue that police officers in rural areas are faced with unique challenges because they lack adequate support. New curricula that are formulated to train police officers focus majorly on handling urban and emerging problems. Conversely, little is being done to improve policing in rural areas. The article found out that policing in rural areas has failed because police officers operating in those areas require special training. Findings from the article are important because success of criminal justice system is dependent on excellence on all fronts. Failure to improve performance in certain spheres results in inability to achieve common goal of the department. The article provided information concerning an area where much is yet to be accomplished to bring performance to required standard. Wall, D. S., & Williams, M. L. (2013). Policing cybercrime: networked and social media technologies and the challenges for policing. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 23(4), 409. Retrieved February 28, 2014, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2013.780222 The article focuses on the emerging trends of cyber crime in modern society. It points out cyber crime as one of the national security threats in most countries with the likes of the UK, Australia Netherlands and USA. Many countries are setting aside many strategies for cyber crime preparedness. The article further looks at ways of taming the networked technologies, the social media and their challenges, the increase in recorded prevalence and fears of the new menace. From the article, cybercrime has recently been mutating to include more harmful forms than thought earlier this has been manifested with the birth of supervirus such as Spy-Eye, Zeus and stunex and the rebirth of hacktivism. The authors point out that most viruses are professionally constructed software. The article highlights special issue Policing and Society which exposes the exiting challenges in cyber crime and those at the horizon. Entirely the papers reveal that cyber crime is dynamically changing in two major ways that are asymmetrical in that on one hand cyber crime is getting more professionalized resulting to specialists who are able tackle complex attacks on the computer system and the users. Conversely, the growth of the social media has brought opportunities for the non specialists to organize and communicate in channels that facilitate crimes both online and offline. The article provides information concerning emergence of cybercrime and ways in which police officers across the globe have handled the issue. According to the article, thousands of articles have been written on policing and society but few studies have concentrated use of critical thinking in cybercrime and policing. In many parts of the world, huge budgetary allocation has been made to improve cybercrime preparedness for instance in the UK. However, the issue can be resolved by considering criminological perspective of cybercrime. The reason is that criminals perform their activities with certain intend. Understanding intentions behind actions can assist in formulating workable strategies for handling the problem. Innovation and encouragement of new ideas within the criminal justice system is the best way through which postmodern police can handle cybercrimes. Cybercrimes emanate from innovation, creativity and support for anonymity. Thus, if police have to counter the problem, they have to be ahead of cyber criminals in both ideological and innovative terms. The article is a fundamental source of information because cybercrime appears to be a nightmare to police departments and internet users across the globe. The article provided a new perspective in fight against cybercrimes, which can contribute immensely in solving the situation. The article was selected for the bibliography since cyber crime is an emerging form of crime in the present world. Tackling cyber crime is one of the most important strategies for policing in the near future. It employs a logical flow of ideas and sheds light to scholars of criminology on the day to day changing world of crime revealing the urgency and the methods with which the matter needs to be addressed. Summary The articles used in the bibliography were selected mainly because of the uniqueness and the quality of information provided. Consideration was made to ensure that various aspects of policing and criminology are handled. The articles were imperative in answering the question because the multifarious approach could only yield better result. All the sources used presented essential information on key areas of policing in the contemporary society. The first two articles focused on use of information from different perspectives. Ideally, the two articles complimented each other because it presented ways in which information could be applied in solving policing problems. While the first article hoped to solve physical, social and psychological problems in societies by using information, the second article dealt with the manner in which intelligence information is applied within the police department. The third article dealt with nature of engagement between the police and criminals. The area of policing was deemed important because numerous cases concerning collaboration between police and criminals have been reported in the past. The article complimented others by expressing a unique point that could raise standards of policing. The forth article contrasted with the other articles because it traced policing problems in rural setting. Conversely, it complimented the other articles by providing recommendations that could raise professionalism within the criminal justice department. The last article was different from the rest because it dealt with policing cybercrime. It mainly considered the future perspective of policing while the rest obtained numerous evidences from past events. Read More