The Masculinity and the Profiles of Gendered Offending - Research Paper Example

Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Introduction Most of the discussions on crime and criminals refer to men and their behaviors. Generally, men commit more crimes compared to women. A number of criminologists support the idea that the gender gap within crime is universal, arguing that women involve in fewer criminal acts than men. In workplaces, for example, men tend to have more than women in managerial positions. This is a clear indication that sexual harassment is prevalent within the working environment, an implication of the male power as well as power experienced as intimidating through women. Although the majority of criminals within the human society are men, some women also commit crimes. This means that women compete for the most quality mates just like men do (Morash 116). Therefore, the costs and level of aggression is what causes the differences between men and women, and thus clearly explains the reasons far lower levels of violence or crimes among women. Gender difference is an important indicator to argue for the variation of crime commitment between men and women. It is relevant to argue that men commit more crimes violent crimes compared to women simply because females are naturally born not to be aggressive (Kanazawa & Still 438). Gender and Crime Based on crime commitment, the gender gap is defined as the low rate of female offending in relation to males. Regardless of the universally accepted allegations that men involve in more crimes than women, the fact has not been taken seriously in the theories of crime. This is because the gender gap has not been analyzed in detail as it is the case in the field of feminism. It is a multi-faceted issue which not only involves understanding of the female crime as well as the inextricably related questions of whether the gender patterns and motivations linked to criminal activity are similar for men and women, but also determines why the gender gap exists (Steffensmeier 64). Recently, questions have been raised on the need to focus on male crime as well as the implications of involving the gender and masculinities issues in explaining the gender gap. It is important to note that understanding gender in regard to crime commitment is a threefold issue. Firstly, theoretical perspective of reasoning on women who commit crime is required. Secondly, there is also need to determine why the theories are different for women as well as explain the existence of gender gap. Thirdly, it is relevant to understand the reasons as to why males commit more crimes than females. People are increasingly struggling to express their masculinity or femininity. Women’s motives are identified through emotional characteristics to crimes which they commit, and thus far less likely compared to men to involve in crimes (Beynon 54). It can be argued that gender is the most appropriate predictor of the criminal behavior where men involve in more crimes while women commit less. Various research carried out on crime have focused more on the male crime because men commit more crimes than women. However, it is also vital to understand the female crime, for instance, determining the reasons as to why women commit fewer crimes than men. Women commit crime when faced with a challenge but lack of accessibility to the needed resources makes them to indulge in crime activities such as prostitution and stealing. This is important in the illumination of major causes of crime as well as planning how they can be controlled more effectively. Female and Male offending patterns Women and men commit and both are victims of crimes. However, the question remains to determine whether their views, understandings as well as the interpretations of crime based on victims or perpetrator aspects appears to be different. Furthermore, both men and women involve in violence though their motivations differs. For instance, men commit violence so as to emphasize their dominance in a given situation a person or territory in order for their masculinity to be accepted. On the other hand, women do so as their defense for the children, their lives, family and friends. Similarities and differences exit in offending patterns by men and women. For example, both involve in the minor property as well as substance abuse crimes than in more serious crimes such as robbery and murder. The major difference is that the rate of men offending is generally much higher compared to women in all crime categories exclusive of prostitution (Allen 116). It is relevant to argue that gender gap in crime is bigger for the most serious crime and smaller for the mild forms of lawbreaking among women and men, for instance, in minor property crimes. The most significant gender difference within arrest profiles is relatively much higher female committing the minor property crimes, while males increasingly involve in the serious personal or property crimes. It is important to note that there has been a shift in the offense profiles of men and women away from the public order crimes such as public drunkenness, vagrancy, gambling and disorderly conduct to the changing enforcement priorities. Female crime is considered to be less extensive and tilted more toward the minor property crime as well as major abuse offenses. Therefore, women commit less crime than their counterpart and their offense are typically less dangerous in nature (Hedderman 28). Although changes within the arrest patterns have been similar in men and women, female arrests over minor property, assault and alcohol-related crimes have increased relative to men. Based on the motivation point of view, it is apparent that factors which restrict criminal chances for women also limit their subjective willingness to involve in crimes. Therefore, gender norms, moral and relational issues, lack of strength and social control cause gender differences within the criminal motivation (Steffensmeier 115). The recent changes in the law enforcement policies that make the arrest net more widely to include the minor activities of criminal behavior will increase the female arrest levels. This is simply because of the differing contexts of both female and male crimes that are shaped through the principles of gender. Apparently, males highly tend to be victims of criminal justice system in comparison to women, a trend that accounts for the gender differences within the offending behaviors of as well as in the nature of individuals to be convicted. In order to establish the relationship between women and crime, a number of feminist criminologists have discovered the absence of women in the criminological literature. Various studies, however, are carried out as a response to the issue regarding the universal acceptance in criminology that gender is an important subject. Herrington and Nee (24) examined that female offenders if convicted of violence offense, they consider themselves as being identified by more masculine traits compared to the female non-offenders. This implies that gender provides greater statistical value when establishing the difference between criminals and the non-criminals. Crimes that are committed by women are considered to be less serious, rarely professional and not repeated. Therefore, it is important for criminologists to understand that crime statistics do not reflect the actual numbers of criminals. Instead, they represent individuals arrested and convicted, and thus cautions must be taken while deriving theories related to gender gap in crime. It is relevant to argue that reasonable and unified theoretical framework is still required to explain female criminality as well as gender differences within crime. According to Heidensohn (8) argued that the commitment of female crimes and unofficial deviance provides the view that sociologists should shift from analyzing infractions and focus on conformity. This is because the most significant issue about female behavior involves how remarkably the women conformist to the social mores (Heidensohn 11). Heidensohn (38) examined that women are subject to high pressures as well as compensations to conform to the requirements which men may not. She argues that informal sanctions control women from straying from the correct behavior. This includes parental disapproval, ill-repute and the male companions if combined with activities which dominate women completely in men, for instance, children, family and the entire community. The public images as well as culture causes daring deviance among men. However, deviant women are highly punished (Heidensohn 44). Therefore, the lack of practical consensus to support understanding of the female crime and the gender gap has influenced many; for example, Heidensohn (45) to comment on the unfortunate feminist criminology has not provided suitable theory to increase those it has condemned (Heidensohn 48). Based on the study findings on offending patterns or criminal victimization, it is quite clear that both men and women differ in their risk levels as victims of violence. For example, men take the greatest risk as victims of the multifarious violent crimes including assault and intimidation than their counterpart won. Although the gender gap of offending is narrowing, more differences are identified in regard to women and men crime involvement. It is not doubtable that patterns of offending evolves over time. It can be summarized that offending is predominantly versatile and not special specifically in the younger ages. Crime and masculinities In order to evaluate reasons as to why men highly commit crimes than women, gender identity becomes a vital part of a person’s sense of the self, something accomplished. It is important to note that individuals are increasingly struggling to express their masculinity or femininity. In regard to crime, it is arguable that men involve in crimes to find their way of building their masculinity so as to express to others as well as to themselves. Different masculinities are shaped through social class, age, sexual orientation and ethnicity. Therefore, the position of men within the society gives them different access to both power and resources that causes different expression of masculinity, and thus causing various types of crimes (Tierney 530). It is relevant to conclude that masculinity makes men to commit more. The lower working-class men with their origin from the ethnic minority groups have little expectation to succeed in education or simply secure employment express their masculinity as street gangs. This means that if they are offered with little opportunity to accomplish their hegemonic masculinity through legitimate means, such men are more likely to involve in robbery and the severe property crimes. On the other hand, middle-class males with resources to accomplish their hegemonic masculinity indulge in crimes so as to express their masculinity. According to Messerschmidt (56) white collar and the corporate crimes are not only a means for benefiting individuals and organizations, but also ways of accomplishing the hegemonic masculinity as the controllers and aggressive risk-taking males. This implies that working class crimes within the workplaces can be considered as a way of accomplishing masculinity. It is relevant to point out that workers sometimes reject the authority of management by involving in theft cases and industrial sabotage crimes. According to Morash (160) women commit crimes so as to express their anger, frustrations with society due to lack of resources, assault or robbery. This implies that women involve in crimes because of being desperate and lack of resources to enable them meets their needs. Therefore, women commit crime when faced with a challenge but lack of accessibility to the needed resources makes them to indulge in crime activities such as prostitution and stealing. In cases where women are abused or assaulted, they may react rudely out of the need to protect their lives. It is quite clear that women’s motives are identified through emotional characteristics to crimes which they commit, and thus far less likely compared to men to involve in crimes. This clearly indicates that women commit crimes occasionally, unlike men who involve in crimes day after day. Female involvement is highest for crimes that are consistent with the traditional norms as well as for which they have most opportunity. This means that the lowest opportunity is given for crimes that diverge from the traditional gender norms, particularly for which females have limited opportunities (Morash 165). Masculine appearance affects the perceptions of the guilt for male and female suspects. Therefore, the link between masculinity and the guilt perceptions are stronger, particularly for crimes which are identified to be largely caused by male perpetrators. The analysis of gender patterns within crimes shows that both similarities and differences exist in the offending patterns of female and male. Therefore, traditional criminological theories should be given more credit than they received in the previous literature in regard to their ability to offer the general explanations of offending patterns in female and male as well as on the gender gap in crime. Similarly, the manner and rate at which female and male are offending correspond to one another across the differences in geographical locations, race, time and class, provides the view that respond to similar social forces. This excludes the need for gender-specific theories in criminology (Kruttshnitt, Gartner and Ferraro 532). Hate Crime and Masculinity Turn The various criticisms on the narrow construction of the hate crimes as the attacks on groups committed by strangers, has raised questions on the apparent failure to consider the gender-dimension. This is because much of the ant-women violence and the related crimes suggest the misogynistic elements of purpose. Furthermore, feminist crime scholars as well as the ant-violence campaigners have concentrated on the distortions of emphasis on the unsafe male strangers that increases the level of offending caused by men known to the female victims. However, it is apparent that most of the violence and crimes committed by men are directly linked to the conventional understanding of the hate crime (Collier 54). Arguably, the increased level of fear exhibited by women and the outcome of self-regulation of the day to day activities to avoid the likelihoods of sexual attacks indicates that the crimes are committed as a result of group intimidation. In this case, the male pattern of high incidents suggests that a more significant link could be established between the current discussions about hate crime and the masculinity turn in the contemporary views of offending. The maleness involvement in hate crimes operates at various levels which are indistinct within specific actions. This accounts for the higher levels of the universal male involvement as the perpetrators in the criminal acts, particularly those related to serious violence (Herrington & Nee 32). Drug use and offending behavior among women The use of drug by women is perceived to be defining factors in their involvement in crime. Studies indicate that severe use of drug abuse is more linked to their criminality than for men in the areas of prostitution and property crime. This implies that women’s drug use as well as offending differs from men’s. Therefore, female offenders possess more abilities than males to be protected from the non-violent crimes (White & Haines 124). Male offenders involve in more violent crimes, while women drug users experience more abuses, adversity and economic hardships in their lives compared to men. In regard to this, the use of drug abuse by women and men as well as their criminal behaviors provides the major risk factors such as childhood abuse, mental illness, parental or family issues and inadequate social support (Hedderman 32). Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be concluded that women involve in fewer criminal acts than men. The costs and level of aggression causes the differences between men and women, and thus accounts far lower levels of violence or crimes among women. Gender difference is an important indicator to argue for the variation of crime commitment between men and women. Most of the violence and crimes committed by men are directly linked to the conventional understanding of the hate crime. People are increasingly struggling to express their masculinity or femininity. Women’s motives are identified through emotional characteristics to crimes which they commit, and thus far less likely compared to men to involve in crimes. Women commit crime when faced with a challenge but lack of accessibility to the needed resources makes them to indulge in crime activities such as prostitution and stealing. The male pattern of high incidents in committing crimes suggests that there is a significant link between the current discussions about hate crime, and the masculinity turn in the contemporary views of offending. Female crime is considered to be less extensive and tilted more toward the minor property crime as well as major abuse offenses. Works Cited Allen, J. The Masculinity of Criminality and Criminology" Ch 1 in Findlay, M & Hogg, R Understanding Crime and Criminal Justice. 1998. Beynon, J. Masculinities and Culture, Ch 1, Open University Press. 2002. Collier, R. Masculinities, Crime and Criminology, Sage, London, Ch 1. 1998. Heidensohn,F. Women and Crime. London: Macmillian Press Ltd. 1996. Herrington, & Nee, C. Self-perceptions, masculinity and female offenders. Internet Journal of Criminology, 2005. 1-30. Hedderman, C. Why are more women being sentenced to custody? In McIvor G, (ed) Women who offend. London: Jessica Kingsley. 2003. Kanazawa, S. & Still, M. C. Why Men Commit Crimes (and Why They Desist). Sociology Theory, 18(3), 434-447. 2000. Kruttshnitt, C., Gartner, R. & Ferraro, K. Women’s involvement in serious interpersonal violence, Aggression and violent behavior. 7: 529-565. 2002. Messerschmidt, J. Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Crime: Toward a Socialist Feminist Criminology. Totowa, NJ: Rowman &Littlefield. 1998. Morash, M. Understanding Gender, Crime, and Justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 2006. Steffensmeier, D. Gender and Crime: Toward a Gendered Theory of Female Offending, Annual Review, 22:459–87. 1996. Tierney, J. Excerpt from Ch 15 ‘Perspectives on Masculinity’ in Criminology: Theory and Context, Pearson, pp. 529-531. 2006. White, R & Haines, F. Ch 7 ‘Feminist Perspectives’ in Crime and Criminology: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, pp. 115-136. 2004. Read More