Body Worn Camera in Policing - Assignment Example

Body-worn Camera in Policing Name: Lecturer: Course: Date: Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Outline: On-officer video cameras in policing 3 Historical review of technology in policing 4 Stages of technological advancement 6 Stage 1 (1881-1945) 6 Stage2 (1946-1959) 7 Stage 3 (1960-1979) 7 Stage 4 (1980 to 2014) 7 Theoretical review in crime prevention 8 Social disorganization theory 8 Victimization perspective 9 Social Control perspective 9 Rational choice theory and Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) theory 9 On-officer video camera (OVC) in crime prevention 10 Surveillance 11 Privacy concerns 12 Conclusion 12 References 13 Introduction Lewis and Lewis (2011) define technology as the application of soft and hard science materials, methods, and knowledge in practicing arts and skills. From the definition, it could be reasoned that a distinction exists between the soft (social) technologies and the hard (physical) technologies. While Lewis and Lewis (2011) view physical technologies to comprise tools that facilitate accomplishment of tasks, Byrne and Marx (2011) consider social technologies as comprising the methods pertaining to how human behaviours, activities, and interactions occur. Social and physical technologies vary from simple to complex technologies with several systems or components that serve technological functions of processes (Klein and Kleinman 2002). A modern example is the body-worn cameras, or On-officer video cameras (OVC) in policies. The focus of this literature review is on On-officer video cameras in preventing crime and offending by the law enforcement agencies and the citizens. Outline: On-officer video cameras in policing According to Grant and Terry (2005), the nature of police work are characterized by scrutiny and controversies that follow litigious actions taken by the police officers, since they interact with the citizens when they (citizens) are at highly emotional state. In rare events and based on the gravity of the situation, the officers may sometimes use force. Hence, legal actions have been brought against the law enforcement agencies, since the 1960s. In their literature review of technologies in policing, Grant and Terry (2005) commented that in the United Kingdom and the United States, video surveillance have been used to provide evidence on what took place. With technological developments in the 21st century, On-officer video cameras have been adopted to provide first-hand evidence. In the UK, they were first used as body-worm video cameras before being transformed into body-worn video cameras in 2005. If the OVC becomes a stand tool for police patrol, then the law enforcement agencies have to implement policies effectively and rationally. This view is shared by Grant and Terry (2005) who argued that the significance of the policy in law enforcement agency is connected to the focus of the police’s general mission and their perception of civil liability. Still, an underlying concern is whether OVC is an effective predictor of crime prevention. However, as Byrne and Marx remarks, a historical review of technology in policing has provided evidence regarding their significant role in crime prevention. Historical review of technology in policing A review of historical development of the efforts to prevent crime stresses the idea that technology has driven reforms in crime control and prevention by formal law enforcement agencies. Lewis and Lewis (2011) suggested two categories of technological innovations: material-based technologies and information-based technologies. These two forms of technologies have been associated with dramatic changes in police organisation, specifically during the turn of the last century. The same remarkable connection can be provided to the crime prevention strategies. As stated by Ratcliffe et al (2009), the initial technology revolution changed the manner in which the police were structured, as well as how they operated, which revolved around three technologies, namely, the two-way radio, telephone and automobile. Changes in policing have enabled the police profession to transform from being an in-effective watch group to law enforcement agencies, which have incorporated advanced problem-solving strategies and technologies. In the early police surveillance work, in the mid-1800s, the English police system was largely based on watch groups made up of men who volunteered to watch (Grant and Terry 2005). It was greatly ineffective, sporadic, and disorganised. It later transformed to men who loved in communities, known as the frankpledge system, which was semi-structured system where groups of men took part in enforcing the law. In 1829, the then Home Secretary of England Sir Robert Peel introduced a bill to improve policing, leading to the creation of London Metropolitan Police. Peel was of the idea that police work should centre on crime prevention using technologies. The Bill introduced the wearing of police uniform, displaying of badge number, carrying of firearms and police training to promote effective policing (Lewis & Lewis 2014). Grant and Terry (2005) observe that the police have used technology from as early as the 1800s when they adopted uniforms, and call boxes and patrol wagons. Even as some technological innovations are just tools that enable the police to perform their standard functions, some other technologies have primarily changed the manner in which the police perform their function. The very initial technological revolution in police work that generated a remarkable change in policing materialized after the discovery of the telephone, the two-way radio, and after the advent of automobile (La Vigne et al 2011). Before then, the police officers patrolled the streets with nightstick in hand, where they had little communication with their headquarters and limited prospect of assistance in the event of some urgent need. Similarly, citizens who needed police help had to roam in the streets in search of a police on patrol, or walk for distances to a police station. The explosion of telephones in the twentieth century led to change of policing. Such technological advances were instrumental in creating the police as they are known today. Some researchers, such as Schultz (2014) have indeed argued that the current technological innovations herald the stages of the second technological revolution that will also radically transform the police administration and organisation. In a study by Goff and McEwen (2008), it is indicated that from 1995 to 2002, the United States Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program provided grants that assisted some 4,500 law enforcement agencies to purchase and execute technology to promote efficiency in policing. The sum of $1.3 billion was used to procure crime fighting technologies, which enabled redeployment of over 42,000 full-time law enforcement professionals in community policing. An even wider description of crime prevention can be considered in the concern with the newer factors, including reducing risk factors for crime. Stages of technological advancement Grant and Terry (2005) provide a vital conceptual framework for description of technology advancement in policing. Grant and Terry (2005) describe Soulliere's (1999) four-stage analysis model of technological advancement. Stage 1 (1881-1945) In the first stage, Grant and Terry (2005) states that the police increased their mobility using motor vehicle patrol, as well as increased officer-precinct through radio and telephone. It was also marked by development of police forensic laboratories and sectioning of police agencies into to create specialised units for police communications and forensic investigations. Stage2 (1946-1959) Grant and Terry (2005) stated that technological advancements at this stage included bureaucratisation of policing organisations, which resulted in technological advancements. The first measuring instruments for speed violations were used, advancing later to automobile surveillance and blood-alcohol measure technologies. Stage 3 (1960-1979) Major technological advancements, Grant and Terry (2005) observes, happened at this stage including computerised databanks, distribution centres, and computer-aided dispatch (CAD). In 1968, the Police started adopted single telephone numbers, such as 911. Video surveillance in policing was first used in 1956 to regulate behaviour at traffic lights. In 1960, pan-tilt cameras were first used to monitor crowds during visits to parliament. In the mid 1960s, dashboard cameras were first used in patrol cars. Stage 4 (1980 to 2014) According to Grant and Terry (2005), Stage 4 is largely characterised by information use, including surveillance cameras, mobile computing, biometric technologies, and imaging technologies. However, stage 4 has been controversial due to concerns regarding privacy and citizen liberties. This has however, been balanced by the need to promote security and social welfare. As explained by the balancing act of law enforcement technology use. The various technologies at this stage, according to Schultz (2014), include in-car camera systems, photo enforcement systems, graffiti cameras, thermal imaging, electronic whiteboards, lasers, crime mapping, less-lethal technology, diagramming systems, automatic license plate recognitions, global positioning systems, and police-body cameras. Theoretical review in crime prevention Gaining deeper insight into the social relationships in communities has been used as a foundational concept in theories predicting criminal behaviour (La Vigne et al 2011). Examples have included social disorganisation theories that explore the impact of self-regulation in the communities to the social capital theories, that examine the impact of strong or weak relationship ties, as studies have observed that interpersonal relationships are critical to predicting crime rates in communities, as well as identifying techniques for crime prevention (Lewis and Lewis 2014). Social disorganization theory Lewis and Lewis (2014) comment that Social disorganization theory is focused on the methods used by local communities to discover crime and delinquency. The theory was effective in Stage 1. The theory however, became less prevalent due to its conceptual, empirical shortcomings and technological advancements. Rather, researchers have started to centre on the broader social structures, including examining interpersonal relationships, how community members conform, as well as to discover crime causes. As a result, the crime prevention techniques have sought to modify how victims behave and motivate crime and the environment. Lewis and Lewis (2011) take this perspective to argue that in the 1980s, criminologists started to concentrate in place, neighbourhood, and crime dynamics. Hence, newer theories were developed that centred on understanding the formal and informal structures, as well as the collective capacity for action as measures for predicting criminal behaviour. Victimization perspective Victimization theory centres on understanding causes of crime by assessing relationships. The victimization theory centres on understanding crime as an event that happens between an offender, potential victim, and the environment. It is essential for developing prevention techniques for reducing opportunity for victimization, through examination of the potential offenders and victims, as the actors play a role in the environment (La Vigne et al 2011). According to the theory, the behaviours the two engage in during an event determines the outcome. In the case of police body camera, the police are not likely to harass potential offenders during their interaction. Similarly, the potential offenders are also likely to behave responsibly. Crime prevention strategies, such as police body cameras attempt to modify the behaviour of potential victims and that of the offending police. Social Control perspective The theory, as Lewis and Lewis (2014) defined it in their analysis of crime prevention theories, hypothesies that a community’s morals and values are an outcome of the social norms, and play a critical role in determining behaviour of the offenders. The theory shows that the police will be less likely to offend if the law enforcement agency and the communities discourage such types of behaviours since their initial training. The theory is focused on understanding the formal and informal norms surrounding the potential offenders, and that such norms determine an offender’s behaviour (McQuade 2014). Rational choice theory and Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) theory According to Lewis and Lewis (2014), the theory underlies the effectiveness of surveillance technologies, such as OVC, anchored in the conception that when the potential offenders are aware that they are being watched, they will decide against offending. The theory suggests that potential offenders make rational decisions to commit crime after they consider the potential benefits of the crime and chances of being caught. The theory is entrenched in the Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) theory, which provides means through which offending opportunities can be changed, such as increased risks of being caught, increased efforts involved in engaging in the crime, reducing the rewards of the rime and limiting provocations. In applying the SCP and the rational Choice Theory in OVC, Lewis and Lewis (2014) point to the fact that any impact on the cameras on the perceptions of the citizens and the police officer will take the form of increasing the risk of getting caught. While the increased use of technology has changed how the police perform their duties on a daily basis, some crime prevention theories have failed to account for the possible changes in offender and victim behaviour. According to Ratcliffe et al (2009), information seeking methods have altered information processes on the environment, as a result altering the relationship between the offender, victim, and the environment. On-officer video camera (OVC) in crime prevention Grant and Terry (2005) describe crime prevention as an idea that has been used in a range of ways in solving crime. It has been applied in reference to crime prevention strategies and programs, and outcomes, such as lowered levels of crimes and offending. According to Byrne and Marx (2011), crime prevention is often applied ubiquitously as a catchphrase that can be used in criminal justice-based and non-criminal justice-based programs. In respect to crime prevention, Lewis and Lewis (2011) examined the role and impact of formal social control mechanisms, such as the deterrent impacts of the police and the information social control mechanisms with the centre of attention on the influence. Roberts (2011) states that crime prevention strategies are focused on a range of levels of crime prevention, such as primary, secondary and tertiary, as well as the need for individual, parochial, and public actions in crime prevention. Roberts (2011) added that gaining an insight into crime prevention calls for examining the intentions and consequences. A wide range of measures demands for consideration surpassing the traditional number of offenders or the criminal events. Other factors to be considered include the rate of harm prevented and the number of victims who suffer harm. Surveillance According to Roy (2014), On-officer video camera (OVC), or on-officer recording systems, consist of small cameras clipped on the officer's uniforms for recording video and audio of the police's interaction with the public. A new generation of officers equipped with On-officer video camera (OVC) or police body camera has, according to Stanley (2013), enhanced police legitimacy. Myhill and Quinton (2011) raised questions regarding the relationship between the citizens, the police, and policing. A study by Farrar and Ariel (2013) indicated that humans tend to get more self-aware when being watched. As a result, they are likely to alter their actions. In a related study, Ratcliffe et al (2009) commented that such outcomes are likely to change the conduct of the police and the public. The concept has appealed to policymakers in respect to improving police services and reducing civil liabilities, as well as the behaviour of citizens. The positive reception has, according to Isnard (2001), improved surveillance, police, and citizen accountability. A related study by Roy (2014) showed that use of OVC has reduced police harassment and citizen complaints. Privacy concerns Like Roy (2014), Stanley (2013) showed that OVC have greater potential to invade privacy as the officer may enter people's homes, during encounter with suspects, or when the victims are under compromising situations. In Stanley’s (2013) view, the major challenge of the OVC is their potential to invade privacy, which must be balanced with their benefit of promoting police and citizen accountability. Roy (2014) however concluded that it can be viewed as a win-win situation only when employed within the right framework of strong policies that protect the public without maintaining public confidence in integrity of those privacy protections. Without such a framework, their accountability benefits are not likely to exceed their privacy risks. Conclusion The nature of police work is characterized by scrutiny and controversies that follow litigious actions taken by the police officers, since they interact with the citizens when they (citizens) are at highly emotional state. In rare events and based on the gravity of the situation, the officers may sometimes use force. Hence, the OVC have become a stand tool for police patrol. As established in the literature review, OVC is an effective predictor of crime prevention. Theoretically, while crime is perceived as an occurrence in the victimization perspective, it is provided as an act in the social control perspective. The Victimization Perspective hypothesises that the behaviours the police are not likely to harass potential offenders during their interaction. Similarly, the potential offenders are also likely to behave responsibly. The Social Control Perspective shows that the police will be less likely to offend if the law enforcement agency and the communities discourage such types of behaviours since their initial training. References Byrne, J & Marx, G 2011, "Technological Innovations in Crime Prevention and Policing. A Review of the Research on Implementation and Impact," Cahiers Politiestudies Jaargang vol 3 no 20, pp. 17-40 Farrar, W & Ariel, B 2013, Self-awareness to being watched and socially desirable behavior: A field experiment on the effect of body-worn cameras and police use of force, Police Foundation, Washington, DC Grant, H & Terry, K 2005, Law Enforcement in the 21st Century, Allyn & Bacon, Boston Isnard, A 2001, “Can Surveillance Cameras Be Successful In Preventing Crime And Controlling Anti-Social Behaviours?” Paper presented at The Character, Impact and Prevention of Crime in Regional Australia Conference convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology and held in Townsville 2-3 August 2001 Klein, H & Kleinman, D 2002, "The Social Construction of Technology: Structural Considerations," Science, Technology, & Human Values, vol. 27 no. 1, pp.28-52 McQuade, S 2014, "Technology-enabled Crime, Policing and Security," The Journal of Technology Studies vol 32 no 1 Myhill, A & Quinton, P 2011, It’s a fair cop? Police legitimacy, public cooperation, and crime reduction: An interpretative evidence commentary, National Policing Improvement Agency La Vigne, N, Lowry, S, Markman, J & Dwyer, A 2011, Evaluating the Use of Public Surveillance Cameras for Crime Control and Prevention, The Urban Institute, Washington Lewis, S & Lewis, D 2011, "Digitalizing Crime Prevention Theories: How Technology Affects Victim and Offender Behavior," International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory vol 4 no 2, pp.756-769 Ratcliffe, J, Taniguchi, T & Taylor, R 2009, "The Crime Reduction Effects of Public CCTV Cameras: A Multi-Method Spatial Approach," Justice Quarterly vol 26 no 4, pp.746-770 Roberts, D 2011, "Technology Is Playing an Expanding Role in Policing," The Police Chief no 78, 78, pp.72–73 Roy, A 2014, “On-Officer Video Cameras: Examining the Effects of Police Department Policy and Assignment on Camera Use and Activation,” A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science at the Arizona State University 2014 Schultz, P 2014, "The Future Is Here: Technology in Police Departments," The Police Chief, vol. 35, no. 6 Stanley, J 2013, Police Body-Mounted Cameras: With Right Policies in Place, a Win For All, viewed 15 Dec 2014, Read More