Criminology: Gender Crime and Justice - Research Paper Example

 MASCULINITY AND CRIMINOLOGY: A CRITICAL REVIEW Table of Content Introduction..........................................................................................................3 Dynamics and Statistics of Male Violent Behaviour.............................................4 Theories of Criminology that explain Male Violent Behaviour.............................6 Psychological Drivers of Male Violent Behaviour................................................7 Social Factors and Male Orientation in Crime.......................................................10 Capitalism.............................................................................................................10 Hegemonic Masculinity.........................................................................................11 Local Gangs and their Circumstances....................................................................12 Cultural Elements of Criminality and Masculinity..................................................13 Conclusion.............................................................................................................15 Bibliography..........................................................................................................17 Table of Figures Figure 1: Davies (2011)..................................................................8 Introduction Messerschmidt describes how, in analysing and evaluating violence and crime, there is always a class of people in society who might be statistically prone or more likely to commit certain forms of crime (Messerschmidt, 1997). In his analysis, he points out the obvious trend for boys and men (males) to take part in violent crimes and offences. This is because it is statistically clear, even to the layman, that men and boys are more likely to commit violent crime than women in any part of the world It is quite difficult to understand why violent crime is so common and prevalent amongst males. This paper attempts to critically examine and evaluate the concept of violent male behaviour in the context of Criminology. In order to attaining this end, the following objectives will be explored: 1. A critical evaluation of the dynamics and statistics relating to male violent criminal behaviour; 2. An analysis of the theories within criminology that explains the justification for and conceptualisation of male violent behaviour; 3. An assessment of the drivers of male violent behaviour in society; 4. An evaluation of possible solutions and methods for eliminating male violent behaviour. Dynamics and Statistics of Male Violent Behaviour Statistically, it would appear that males are more likely to take up violent criminal action than women. This includes statistics from areas such as street violence, drugs, alcohol, corporate crime and sexual offences. Males have a general tendency to commit crime; this is stronger than that of females in the above-described areas of criminal activity. Males are likely to be involved in violent clubs and men between 16 and 24 are three times more likely to be victims of stranger violence than females (Ruxton, 2010). A study by The Stationery Office indicates that almost all victims of domestic violence in the UK are females, rather than males (Ruxton, 2010). Most perpetrators of these forms of domestic violence are males. According to the UK Home Office, in the year 2001, only 19% of known offenders who were cautioned or found guilty by the criminal justice system were women (Walklate, 2004). In 2006, over 80% of the 1.42 million people sentenced to prison for participation in violent crime and offences in the UK were males (Ray, 2010). Amongst teenage offenders, there was a huge and disproportionate representation of males amongst those who participated in serious violent crimes and offences (Ray, 2010). Violence and crime is somewhat the exclusively reserve of men. Most people have a mentality of excluding females from their perception of violence and crime. This entrenched attitude in British society is evident in Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth, where Lady Macbeth had to “unsex” herself in order to assist in the murder of Duncan (Flowers, 2012). This shows that females are generally not associated with violent crimes such as murder and other fatal actions that can cause the destruction of life and/or property. On the other hand, women are presented as victims of male attacks in societies (Davies, 2011). This implies that women are seen as people who come under the direct influence and impact of male actions, in relation to violence, inappropriate behaviour and actions. Males are also connected to crimes like burglary, in relation to the appropriation of other people’s property and other similar actions (Furlong & Cartmel, 2012). Some authorities present a general ratio of 9:1 for the number of cases where men and women carry out carry out violent crime and offences (Brewer, 2010). This shows that there is a general trend and tendency for males to commit crime and undertake negative acts within society. Other further studies identify that the 9:1 ratio has been consistently maintained in the UK over the past three decades (Walklate, 2004). This shows that there is something wrong with the male segment of society, as men seem to have a general tendency to commit violent crimes and cause major problems and issues. Theories of Criminology that explain Male Violent Behaviour There are different theories and concepts that seek to explain male violent criminal behaviour. This include the ideas and concepts put forward by various theorists, practitioners and academics, that seek to explain why males are more likely to commit violent crimes in various situations and contexts. A critical review of these concepts and ideas will culminate in two fundamental classes of theories. These are: 1. Sociological theories; 2. Psychological Theories. These two classes of theories seek to provide insight into why boys grow up to become violent in their actions and process. The psychological theories seek to explain why men are motivated intrinsically to commit criminal and violent offences. This includes the main internal factors that cause men to commit violent crimes. Sociological theories describe how such violent and criminal behaviours are steeped in actions and processes from the external environment, which induce men to commit criminal offences and actions. These theories are steeped in the assumption that human beings are products of society: we tend to behave in the ways that society demands or expects us to. These views and ideas form the basis for the conduct and activities of males in a way that induces violence, criminal behaviour and criminal offences. Psychological Drivers of Male Violent Behaviour Psychological drivers of male violent and criminal behaviour are often connected to personality disorders. Various theories seek to explain the wrongful and disorderly behaviour that males exhibit from time to time (Flowers, 2012). This includes mental and emotional issues that are often inherent in males, that induce males to come up with actions that are deviant and unacceptable in modern and civilised societies (Flowers, 2012). The psychological drivers of male violent and disorderly behaviour revolve around cognitive and behavioural factors that induce men and boys to indulge in violent and negative behaviour within society. Explanations put forward by some psychological thinkers include the various processes and systems that make up an individual. This encompasses genetic make-up, body type and IQ (Cole & Smith, 2011). In examining the male make-up, most of these theories tend to discuss the inherent features and processes that cause men to naturally tilt towards violent and criminal actions and processes. Men tend to initiate activities within society, such as sex. Hence, men have a natural tendency towards acts that induce various responses which might not be acceptable in law. This includes trespass upon other people’s bodies, and violence and disorderly behaviour as a means of attaining various ends and expectations. In terms of body type, men are built to be stronger and more ‘macho’ in outlook. This is because most men are likely to look stronger and seek to be more aggressive than women who are viewed as more caring and less aggressive and more assertive. General observation and statistics indicate that right from the family situation, the female mind is much more sensitive, and women are less prone to force their will on others. Men will in contrast want to use force, and will therefore tend to seek to use various methods of wielding control over others. In terms of their inherent features, men and women are viewed differently on several grounds, as follows: Women Men Friendly Prone to competition and aggression Emotional Rational Ethic of care Ethic of justice Selfless Selfish Private Public Home-oriented Work-oriented Carer Provider Passive Active Conflict resolver Aggressive Figure 1: Continuum of Behaviour of Men and Women (Davies, 2011) Based on the diagram above, it follows that the nature of men is that they are more likely and more prone to committing crime than women, who are seen to have an orientation and position that makes them less likely to be involved in violence. Generally, there is a trend towards crime and violence amongst the male part of the population. This is due to an inherent attribute of men, who are competitive and have a tendency to seek rationalisation and justice through their actions and processes. Hence, men are likely to engage in crime and other forms of activities that gives way to violence and criminality. Neuro-psychological disturbance and hyperactivity are seen as major processes and major factors that induce people to indulge in violent and criminal activities (Buikhuisen & Mednick, 2012). It is identified that it is more common and more likely for men to have these neuro-psychological disturbances and hyperactivity as opposed to women. This is because hormonally, men have an induction that makes them more physical and more aggressive than women, who are in turn more likely to be considerate and sensitive to others (Buikhuisen & Mednick, 2012). Minor physical abnormalities (MPA) include abnormal traits and features that are found amongst various people, particularly males. These traits explain the patterns of actions that they come up with (Cullen & Wilcox, 2012). They include various brain damages caused during the formation of embryos and other things that causes the brain to develop complications and abnormalities early on. Men and boys have a bigger chance of having these forms of abnormalities than females (Cullen & Wilcox, 2012). Other inducers like alcohol and drugs tend to affect the human mind and cause most abusers, particularly males, to tilt towards violent and anti-social behaviour. Empirical studies show that males are more likely to suffer from a bout of psychological disorders due to their long-term reliance on substances like alcohol and drugs. These products are often abused by this gender and it creates permanent damage and complications in people (Krahe, 2010). Social Factors and Male Orientation in Crime There is no doubt that every human being is a product of the society within which he/she lives. Therefore, there is a natural tendency and desire for people to seek to live according to the external factors of their environment and this induces people to do things and partake in actions and processes that might not necessarily be positive within society. Masculinity, like most concepts in society, is defined by social structures and social systems. This is because society has a general process and a general system through which it creates a natural-selection process that enables people to build up various lifestyles that are befitting of them. Generally, society acknowledges that males have a natural tendency to commit violent crimes and this has been ingrained in society and in people’s mind (Campbell, 2008). Capitalism Some writers posit that maleness, in terms of committing violence and causing problems in society, is simply caused by the fact that society is capitalist and people are required to maximise their returns through any means that is legal (Flood, Gardiner, Rease, & Pringle, 2012). Due to this, males are simply seen as people who have drives and systems that are ignited as a means of surviving and attaining results. Such drives are generally seen as being acceptable at their best, and as methods for being productive within a capitalist society. Therefore, men socialise and rely on their masculine traits as a means and a system of surviving (Messerschmidt, 1997). Males survive and assert their positions and selves in a way and manner that is more aggressive than females. This creates a trend towards troublesome actions and processes. Status and power causes most men to tilt towards dangerous, violent or criminal acts (Messerschmidt, Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory, 1993). Hegemonic Masculinity Hegemonic masculinity refers to a process and system that sets the parameters and frameworks for the conduct of men in society. This includes the standard practices and processes that men are supposed to be involved in and it include various things and activities that defines what a man is, as opposed to what a woman has to do to be classified as a woman. Hegemonic masculinity has laid the impetus for the creation of a set of activities and processes that are defined as norms and standard lifestyles that are exclusively associated with men. This includes various activities and actions which encompasses violent and criminal behaviour as a standard part of men in society (Messerschmidt, Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory, 1993; Campbell, 2008). In most homes and in most families, men and boys are expected to engage with various actions and various processes. Examples of such actions include some forms of violence and crime which makes a man more masculine and more ‘macho’ than other men. Hence, this general social and cultural trend of seeing men as people associated with certain forms of violence, causes men to become defined by these negative acts. Thus, for a woman to become involved in such crimes, it is sometimes common for some ladies to be viewed in a masculine context rather than a feminine context since their actions are more associated with males (Flowers, 2012). Masculinity is the fundamental basis and background for these specific forms of negative acts. Local Gangs and their Circumstances Perhaps one of the biggest areas in which masculine hegemony is found is in the area of gangs and violent circumstances. In these gangs, status and power are an important aspect of inclusion within these groups. In most cases, these gangs are masculinised and presented in a way that is reflective of war. Violence is presented as a source of credibility and membership (Bockman, 2010). Gangs are a reflection of the cultural norms which exist in a given society. Girls are expected to be masculine in order to become members of gangs. Most men commit crime within organised groups; this is done through gangs. Gangs are often a convergence point and a concentration of criminal activities. They are often formed by men as a means of pooling their power and authority to attain better ends and better results in whatever they do. Gangs are a collectivised social system through which people get better results from limited effort. Hence, there is a control agenda and this is often mixed up with youthful exuberance, one of the ways through which men show their power and exhibit their strength (White, 2009). Gangs are a local convergence point for young men to show their strength and also exhibit their cultural and ethnic views of how things should be done. This involves asserting their ego and seeking economic power as a means of showing their maleness and their ability to become strong and real men. These gangs fight for power and honour as a means of showing the world their competencies and capabilities as males (White, 2009). This creates the impetus for the committing of violent acts. As a result, the fact that men are generally more violent and more troublesome than women in society becomes evident Cultural Elements of Criminality and Masculinity Masculinity, and its association with crime and violence, is not standard nor is it stable. This is because in every culture there is a different way and manner in which masculinity is defined and how male violence is identified. Hence, there is a general trend by which various cultures and communities view masculine behaviour, violence and cultural practice. In some cultures, the exhibition of masculinity is not only exerted in relation to violence and crime, but also in relation to rape and forced sex as a means of showing power and status (Evans & Jamieson, 2012). In other cultures, this is done through various forms of hooliganism and white-collar crimes, along with the risks that come with them. However, these challenges and lifestyles are all a reflection of the norms, values and wants of each society. They involve elements of what makes a man and how these factors and qualities guide the conduct of people, making them behave in ways that are consistent with various forms of crime and violence that are common and popular with a given class of persons belonging to the male gender. Conclusion The fundamental question that this essay seeks to answer is whether masculinity is in crisis in the context of criminology. The paper identifies that this crisis exists and that there is incontrovertible evidence that masculinity is strongly connected with violence and crime. This is because, in terms of statistics, there is a consistent trend of one female offender for every nine male offenders. This gives testament to a huge disparity in the number of men who commit crimes compared women who commit crimes. This clearly shows that there is an inherent and systematic situation in which men are more likely and more prone to committing violent crimes. However, this paper also identifies that there are various elements and processes that contributes to this situation. This means that masculinity will remain in crisis into the foreseeable future. First of all, there are some inherent elements and aspects of men that have been proven to be a major cause and a fundamental basis for boys and men being linked to crime and violence. This is because, by default, men are more aggressive and more prone to working hard to attain results, whilst women are more emotional and more assertive in their outlook. Hence, men have a general tendency to commit more crime than women. Also, men have a general tendency to abuse more substances that induces negative acts. Men are more likely to be induced towards negative acts of violence and crime. Aside from the inherent element of the masculine tendency towards committing crime and indulging in violence, there are also social factors. This includes the fact that society is capitalist and the desire to build assets and maximise returns causes men to pursue more aggressive routes of meeting their ends. Thus, men are more likely to do things that will enable them to gain results. This includes the need for people to work hard, as well as employing illegal means such as violence and crime. As long as these people are not arrested and made to face the consequences of their actions, most men have the impression that they can carry out these activities as long as they will not be caught. Hegemonic masculinity involves the creation of a framework of actions and activities that a person must indulge in as a man. This sets out a general framework and a general set of activities including violence and crime that makes a person a man. This manifests itself in gangs where there is a strong desire for people to use violence to assert their position, to attain results, and to achieve the best returns. Additionally, every society and every community has its own definition of what makes a person masculine and violent. In some cultures, rape and forced sex is the basis and the norm. In other societies, wars and the ability of men to fight and achieve their will is the main and fundamental basis that separates men from the other sex. Hence, men are encouraged to get involved in such actions to prove their points. Therefore, it is conclusive the masculinity is in crisis. And this crisis is fundamentally steeped in the inherent features of men as well as the social and cultural contexts within which men operate. In most cases, these systems induce violent and criminal behaviour and support criminal actions. Bibliography Bockman, F. (2010). Understanding Homicide. London: SAGE. Brewer, K. (2010). Psychology and Crime. London: Heinemann. Buikhuisen, W., & Mednick, S. (2012). Exploring Criminal Behaviour: Interdisciplinary Approach. London: BRILL. Campbell, B. (2008). Boys will be Boys. In K. Evans, & J. Jamieson, Gender and Crime, A Reader (pp. 42-69). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Cole, G., & Smith, C. (2011). Criminal Justice in America. Mason, OH: Cengage. Cullen, F. T., & Wilcox, P. (2012). Encyclopedia of Criminal Theory. London: SAGE. Davies, P. (2011). Gender, Crime and Victimisation. London: SAGE. Evans, K. E., & Jamieson, J. (2012). Gender and Crime. New York: McGraw Hill. Flood, M., Gardiner, K. J., Rease, B., & Pringle, K. (2012). International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculine Study. London: Routledge. Flowers, R. B. (2012). Male Crime and Deviance: Exploring its Causes and Dynamics and Nature. New York: Charles C Thomas Publishers. Furlong, A., & Cartmel, F. (2012). Young People and Social Change. New York: McGraw Hill. Krahe, B. (2010). The Social Psychology of Aggression. New York: Psychology Press. Messerschmidt, J. W. (1997). Crime as structured action: Gender, race, class and crime in the making. . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Messerschmidt, J. W. (1993). Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Ray, L. (2010). Violence and Society. London: SAGE. Ruxton, S. 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