Drugs in the United States: Juveniles and the Use of Drugs - Dissertation Example

Drugs in the United s: Juveniles and the use of drugs Introduction Drug abuse among the juvenile population has steadily been increasing throughout the years. In many adult circles, where drug use is rampant, many of these drug users testify that they started using drugs in their teenage years. This is a very alarming fact to consider; nevertheless, we must consider it. This paper shall review scholarly and peer-reviewed articles discussing the causes of juvenile drug use; the consequences of their actions; and the harm that they bring to our society. This paper is being conducted in the hope of enhancing our understanding and comprehension of juveniles and of drug-seeking behavior. Discussion A study by Dembo, Wareham, and Schmeidler (2007) sought to examine the rate of increase of cocaine use among adolescents. In their study, they were able to cover about 278 juvenile delinquents who were under the program of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. They assessed the pattern and the growth in cocaine use over a certain period of time; whether or not drug use is affected by sociodemographic characteristics; and the effect of family problems, deviant peer associations, physical abuse, sexual victimization, and emotional functioning on drug use (Dembo, Wareham, and Schmeidler, 2007). In their study, they were able to establish that drug or cocaine use among juveniles usually increased over time. More importantly, they were able to establish and associate increased drug use to delinquent peer associations. Drug use is related, however only marginally, to family problems experienced by the juvenile. This paper shows that peer pressure is a major factor affecting drug use and abuse among teenagers. This fact will help set the trend for future studies on the subject matter and on this paper as well. A study by Reed and Rountree (1997) sought to assess the role of peer pressure in mediating the effect of differential association on individual use. The authors were concerned about reports suggesting the significant influence of peer pressure on juvenile drug use and abuse. However, the authors also pointed out that very few studies proving or disproving the effect of peer pressure on drug use have been actually undertaken. Their study then attempted to remedy this dilemma. Their study drew on associations and learning theories which evaluated the relationship between socialization, group pressure, social selection, and rationalization. In the course of their research, they were able to establish that there were no effects of overt peer pressure on substance abuse. They were able to uncover however that factors which relate to socialization, social selection, and rationalization are important aspects which can help us understand substance abuse (Reed and Roundtree, 1997). The researchers also recommended that more studies be undertaken on the subject matter in order to help establish more evidence-based research and results. The same study was also conducted by Gilmore, Rodriguez, and Webb (2005), who sought to assess the effect of juvenile drug court treatment on the desistance of delinquent behavior in Maricopa County in Arizona. In their study, they included factors like family, school, and peer bonds in order to examine the influence of these factors on the treatment progress of drug users. The study was able to reveal that social bonds which comprehensively relate to all aspects of a person’s life play a significant role in drug use and in delinquent behavior. These social bonds include: parental substance abuse – including drugs and alcohol; siblings’ substance abuse; peers’ substance abuse, and even gang membership (Gilmore, Rodriguez, and Webb, 2005). In retrospect, in addressing the problems of the juvenile drug user, it is important to note these aspects in order to ensure that issues in the abuser’s life can be properly addressed. Kaplan, Martin, and Roberts (1984) attempted to determine the pathways to adolescent drug use. Factors like self-derogation, peer influence, social control, and early substance use were studied in their paper. They studied junior high school students in Houston, Texas in order to assess possible answers to their problem-issue. Results were able to reveal that the four factors mentioned above complement and affect each other in predicting patterns of drug use and abuse (Kaplan, Martin, and Roberts, 1984). This study was able to support the results of previous studies which pointed out the effect of peer influence in drug-seeking behavior and drug abuse by juveniles. In a similar study, Dishion, Nelson, and Bullock (2004) made a general assessment of premature adolescent autonomy and its role in affecting problem behaviors in adolescents. This study considered factors like parent disengagement and deviant peer interaction which may impact on an adolescent’s delinquent behavior. They assessed the family and peer interaction of Oregon Youth Study boys through videotaped interaction activities. Growth curve models were then used to assess the trend between the deviant friendship interactions and the family management process (Dishion, Nelson, and Bullock, 2004). The study was able to reveal that adolescents who were antisocial had a decreased family management when they were in their puberty; whereas for well-adjusted children, they had high levels of management from their parents throughout their adolescent years. The study was also able to reveal that adolescent males who had decreased family management and high levels of deviant peer interactions were most likely to use marijuana and to engage in antisocial acts at the age of 18 (Dishion, Nelson, and Bullock, 2004). This study was able to offer an important glimpse into factors which may be used when interventions are to be considered in managing the behavior of these adolescents. The authors show strong support of results from previous studies which indicate the causes of juvenile drug use. In another study, Moss, Lynch, and Hardy (2003) sought to develop the trajectories of deviant peer affiliation with the development of antisocial and substance abuse behavior in adolescents. They noted that there has been limited information and few studies which were made in evaluating the patterns of behavior of adolescents with fathers who were also substance abusers. In this study, they assessed the density of deviant peers within social groups of children with drug dependent fathers. The behavior of these children was compared with control groups. Through their study, it was established that children with drug dependent fathers were more likely (as compared to control groups) to be involved in deviant peers groups starting from their pre-adolescent years up to their mid-adolescence (Moss, Lynch, and Hardy, 2003). Through their study, they were also able to extrapolate the social developmental process as an element of the relative risk for drug-seeking behavior and for antisocial and delinquent behaviors. Amuedo-Morantes and Mach (2002) assessed the effect of family composition on juvenile substance abuse and drug sales. They used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997. In their study, they were able to express the importance of having father figures in the household in order to prevent juvenile smoking, marijuana use and drug sale. An important result of their study also involved the fact that the impact of father figures on juvenile substance abuse depends so much on the youth and the youth’s gender. The involvement of siblings in substance abuse is also significantly affected by their involvement in juvenile delinquent behaviors (Amuedo-Morantes and Mach, 2006). Once again, this study points out the great impact of the family and of normal family dynamics to drug-seeking behavior in adolescents. This family dynamic is very much in line with parental relationships and parental management which can either produce or prevent delinquent behavior like substance use and abuse. The results of this study can also be seen in a previously cited text which largely relates to behavior of adolescents with drug-dependent fathers. In a study by Ohannessian, Stabenau, and Hesselbrock (2000), they attempted to assess childhood and adulthood temperament and problem behaviors in relation to adulthood substance abuse. In their study, they evaluated the relationships between childhood and adulthood temperament and problem behaviors in 229 adult men and women. In the course of their research, they were able to uncover that individuals who had temperamental and who were difficult to manage when they were children were most likely to manifest problematic behaviors in their adolescent and adult years. In assessing the relationship between temperament problem behaviors to substance abuse, it was found that conduct behaviors during childhood usually led to substance abuse in adult years. And as substance behavior is increased, more antisocial and deviant behavior is seen from the person. The results of this study point out the trends and patterns of behavior that may be seen when thorough observations made on human behavior (Ohannessian, Stabenau, and Hesselbrock, 2000). In this case, the patterns of behavior were observed for several years and through these observations, distinct and more appropriate answers to questions on human behavior were reached. Dishion and Loeber (1985) sought to examine the role of deviant peers, parent and child-rearing practices, and parent alcohol use in the initiation of marijuana and alcohol use in adolescents. Deviant Peers and Parental monitoring was conducted in order to allow parental and child reports on variables included in this paper. Parental management, maternal alcohol abuse, and deviant peers are the three main variables included in this study. The study was then able to reveal that most drug users had lower parental monitoring and had more deviant and problematic peers as compared to non-drug users. Drug seeking behavior however was seen in some young adults who were adequately supervised and managed by their parents, however, these young adults did not manifest any antisocial behaviors. The authors pointed out that “adolescent delinquency and drug use are outcomes of disrupted family processes and exposure to deviant peers, and that adolescents who are both antisocial and use drugs may be at higher risk for eventual substance abuse” (Dishion and Loeber, 1985, p. 11). This study again points out the importance of family support and of healthy family interactions in preventing drug abuse among juveniles. It also shows how limited support and supervision on the home front at the most crucial teenage years can cause deviant and antisocial behavior in adolescents. These deviant behaviors include substance abuse and all manners of addictive and abusive practices. A similar result was seen in a research by Jurich, et.al. (1985) when they attempted to assess the family factors in the lives of drug users and abusers. Again, the study pointed out that family interactions and relationships play a significant role in determining drug seeking behavior in adolescents. This study was also conducted as a literature review which unearthed several family factors which ultimately affected adolescent drug use. However, more interestingly, Jurich and his colleagues (1985) were able to establish that drug abusers mostly came from families who had communication gaps and who experienced laissez faire or authoritarian discipline (Jurich, et.al., 1985). This authoritarian discipline is very interesting to note because previous studies point out that decreased parental management can often lead to drug-seeking behavior. And yet authoritarian discipline can hardly be construed as decreased parental management, in fact, authoritarian discipline borders on excessive parental management. In a way, this study shows that the extremes of parental management can cause deviant or drug-seeking behavior in adolescents. Too much or too little attention can cause adolescents to seek attention elsewhere or to rebel against unwanted and stifling authority figures. This study then implies that a balance in parental management has to be established in order to ensure that the juvenile or the adolescent would not be triggered to find comfort in drugs. A recent study by Krohn, Hall, and Lizotte (2009) sought to investigate the effects of disruptions in the family structures of adolescents. More specifically, this study wanted to examine the impact of these disruptions on deviant and drug-seeking behavior among adolescents. A total of 646 boys and girls were included in this study. This study hypothesized that for girls, there is little support found on the direct or even indirect impact of family transitions on delinquent behavior. The opposite reaction may be seen in boys who would most likely be influenced by family disruptions and changes in peer interactions. In the course of the research, the authors were able to establish that when there are disruptions in the family, the adolescent male child would be most affected by the event. As a result, he would most likely turn to his peers and engage in problematic behaviors, including drug abuse (Krohn, Hall, and Lisotte, 2008). This case is not commonly seen in girls who seem to cope better with family disruptions. However, authors do suggest that more studies on the effect of family disruptions on girls need to be undertaken as this study was able to cover only a small number of female respondents. Therefore, results for girls cannot be generalized to cover the larger population. Consequences of Drug Abuse in Juveniles A study by Dembo, Wareham, Poythress, Cook, and Schmeidler (2006) sought to examine the effects or results of past year drug involvement to the normal psychosocial functioning among juveniles who are in the Juvenile Arbitration Program. The study was able to assess baseline information for 165 youths placed in the program from June 2002 to July 2003. The results revealed that drug use is an important factor in the youths that were included in this study; and this drug use is also related to normal functioning in the different aspects of the adolescent’s life. The study was also able to reveal that increased drug involvement caused more psychosocial problems among the adolescents. And it is important to note that Juvenile programs do not bear a significant impact on the changes in behavior in the adolescents. This result comes in contrast to previous studies which report that youth placed in diversionary or rehabilitation programs actually have fewer problems (Dembo, Wareham, Poythress, Cook, and Schmeidler, 2006). This study shows that such is not always the case. In a study by Caserta (2007), she sought to examine whether juvenile sexual offenders use substances and engage in substance related criminality, or if other forms of criminality are associated with substance abuse. She focused her study on male juvenile sexual and nonsexual offenders. She assessed and evaluated three quantitative studies in her review. The first article revealed that juvenile sexual offenders had high rates of substance use. These substances included cigarette use, alcohol, and drugs. In the second article, the degree of substance abuses in juvenile male sexual offenders was studied. The second study revealed that sexual offenders were more likely to use inhalants and other drugs as compared to other nonsexual offenders. In the third article, the incidence of substance use and criminality among juvenile sexual offenders was assessed. The article was able to reveal that the commission of criminal acts had a high relationship to the use and abuse of alcohol and drugs (Caserta, 2007). This study also revealed that a great portion of the sexual abuse activities of the offenders can be predicted or preempted by drug use and abuse. They recommend that a study of these patterns of behavior be considered in order to prevent or even minimize incidents of sexual abuse by drug addicts and other substance abusers. Harrison and Gfroerer (1992) conducted a survey in order to assess the relationship between drug use and criminal behavior. This survey was conducted with the help of National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA). The survey revealed that there is a strong relationship between drug use and criminal behavior; and the survey indicated that many drug users were also arrested for criminal activities. Among adolescents, their drug use more often contributes to instances of violent criminal behavior. This study proves how drug use affects the rest of society who becomes victimized by drug users and abusers. Fagan (2006) conducted a study on the relationship between gang behavior and drug use and abuse. Fagan promptly points out that previous studies have shown that there is a relationship between collective and individual violence and drug abuse. A total of 151 gang members from 3 cities were included in this study. The study was able to reveal that drug use was prevalent in the respondent gang members. The severity of gang related activities also registered at higher numbers in gang members with increased drug use. Gangs which engaged in violent and non-violent behavior mostly dealt and used cocaine, opiates, and PCP. The study revealed that there is a relationship between drug use and gang related activities. Drug use increases gang-related activities, and higher drug use also causes more perverted and more violent gang-related activities. This study exemplifies that drug use can potentially increase and exacerbate criminal tendencies among the youth. It also supports results from previous studies. In a 2007 study, Cartwright wanted to evaluate the financial costs which are needed in order to administer drug abuse treatment programs in private and public health plans. His study was also a literature database search covering a wide collection of materials discussing financial cost as determined by administrators and policy makers in the drug rehabilitation program. The study was able to establish that the cost of drug treatment programs is a heavy financial burden on society and policy-makers in general. Many small focused programs for drug treatment and rehabilitation reflect heavy costs which society is forced to eventually finance in order to minimize the impact of drug use to the citizens. This study helps point out the financial consequences of drug use to society in general (Cartwright, 2007). Drug-seeking behavior and drug abuse poses so many risks to the peace and order in society; hence, society is now forced to shoulder the burden of the treatment and rehabilitation of drug abusers in order to effectively achieve and safeguard peace and order. This study exemplifies that the impact of drug abuse is also economic, not just social, cultural, or even political. News articles published in government and foundation websites make mention of the effect or impact of drug use and abuse on the family dynamic. Just as family dynamics and disruptions can trigger drug use, it can also cause family disruptions. Parents end up blaming each other for their child’s behavior, and other siblings tend to be deeply affected by this chaotic family environment. Some of them are also attracted by all the attention that their drug abuser sibling is getting and consequently they engage themselves in similar activities just to get attention. In the end, the family becomes more chaotic and severely disrupted. The studies above indicate the causes of drug behavior which most often come from family disruptions and peer influence. Drug abuse tends to trigger various manifestations of criminal behavior; it also increases financial burdens on society for treatment, and it causes family problems and disruptions. Works Cited Amuedo-Dorantes, C. and Mach, T. (October 2002) The Impact of Families on Juvenile Substance Use. Journal of Bioeconomics, volume 4, number 3, pp. 269-282 Cartwright, W. (2007) Economic costs of drug abuse: Financial, cost of illness, and services. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, volume 34, number 2, pp. 224-233 Caserta, D. (2007) Substance use and related criminality among male juvenile sexual and nonsexual offenders: an investigation of the patterns and prevalence. Smith College of Social Work Theses, p. 291. Dembo, R., Wareham, J., and Schmeidler, J. (December 2007) A Longitudinal Study of Cocaine Use among Juvenile Arrestees. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, volume 17, number 1, pp. 83-109 Dembo, R., Wareham, J., Poythress, N., Brittany, C., and Schmeidler, J., (March 2006) The Correlates and Consequences of Drug Involvement among Youths Entering a Juvenile Justice Diversion Program. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, volume 15, number 4, pp. 1-36 Dishion, T., Nelson, S., and Bullock, B. (October 2004) Premature adolescent autonomy: parent disengagement and deviant peer process in the amplification of problem behavior. Journal of Child and Adolescents Substance Abuse, volume 27, number 5, pp. 515-530 Dishion, T. and Loeber, R. (March, 1985) Adolescent Marijuana and Alcohol Use: The Role of Parents and Peers Revisited. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, volume 11, number 1 and 2, pp. 11-25 Fagan, J. (7 March 2006) The Social Organization of Drug Use and Drug Dealing among Urban Gangs. Criminology, volume 27, number 4, pp. 633-670 Gilmore, A., Rodriguez, N., and Webb, V. (2005) Substance Abuse and Drug Courts: The Role of Social Bonds in Juvenile Drug Courts, Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, volume 3, number 4, pp. 287-315 Harrison, L. and Gfroerer, J. (1992) The Intersection of Drug Use and Criminal Behavior: Results from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Crime & Delinquency, volume 38, number 4, pp. 422-443 Jurich, A. (1985) Family Factors in the Lives of Drug Users and Abusers. Adolescence, volume 20, number 77, pp. 143-159 Kaplan, H., Martin, S., and Robbins, C. (1984) Pathways to adolescent drug use: self derogation peer influence, weakening of social controls, and early substance use. Journal of Health and Science Behavior, volume 25, pp. 270-289 Krohn, M., Hall, G., and Lizotte, A., (March 2009) Family Transitions and Later Delinquency and Drug Use. Journal or Youth and Adolescence, volume 38, number 3, pp. 466-480 Moss, H., Lynch, K., and Hardie, T. (20 August 2003) Affiliation with deviant peers among children of substance dependent fathers from pre-adolescence into adolescence: associations with problem behaviors. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, volume 71, number 2, pp. 117-125 Ohannessian, C. Stabenau, J, and Hesselbrock, V. (1995) Childhood and adulthood temperament and problem behaviors and adulthood substance use. Addictive Behaviors, volume 20, number 1, pp. 77-86. Reed, M. and Rountree, P. (June 1997) Peer Pressure and adolescent substance use. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, volume 13, number 2, pp. 143-180 Read More