History of Juvenile Offenders - Research Proposal Example

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW Literature Review Chapter Two: Literature Review History of Juvenile Offenders The foundation for a juvenile offenders behavior is usually based on early childhood experiences. Juvenile offenders come from all walks of life, social classes, and demographics, but most come from similarly dysfunctional families (Delisi, 2009). The majority of youth reported childhood punishment, unfair discipline, abuse/neglect or hostile familial environments. Historically, these families moved around frequently and changed occupations. There were problems associated with familial history of alcohol and drug abuse. Molestation, in addition, influenced the lifestyle of children regarding bonding (Myner, 1998; Delisi, 2009). Juvenile offenders also dealt with abandonment issues, adjustment problems, and were eventually removed from their homes due to poor supervision on the part of the parents. In 1972, the FBIs Behavioral Science Unit was established in Quantico, Virginia for the purpose of studying the techniques and analyzing the patterns of serial killers. Their hard work and efforts resulted in foolproof methods of identifying variable elements the serial killer possessed, which would later distinguish him/her from a single-incident (murderer) and other categories of multicide, including the mass murderer (an act in which a number of people are killed by a single assassin in a short period of time), and spree murderer (multiple killings take place over a longer period of time, days, weeks, years (Douglas & Olshaker, 1995). With this information, the FBI was able to research into collected data and research demographic information collected on their primary subjects childhood and to determine their propensity to commit the aforementioned criminal acts. As a result, their findings yielded useful and profound information about the subjects juvenile delinquent history, which was later utilized in creating profiles of serial murderers as well as violent offenders. For many years, researchers believed that both personality and situational factors must be taken into account in the assessment of dangerousness in juvenile offenders, and offered instructions on how to identify the factors (Quinsey, 1995). In recent years, it can now be accepted that violent behavior in youths as well as dangerousness, is a complex behavior which is determined by biological, psychological, and sociological factors (Ward & Gibson, 2010). Types of Juvenile Offenders Experts categorize youth that persistently offend the law in order to gain clarity and understand their behaviors. There are three types of juvenile offenders according to Jones, Harris, Fader, and Grubstein (2001): 1. Serious- The youth breaks the law as a juvenile and commits a crime serious enough to net a lengthy jail term. A serious juvenile is convicted of a crime and receives a jail sentence of at least twenty months or more. The youth is expected to re-offend if rated serious. 2. Violent- The youth commits a heinous crime such as murder, forcible rape, aggravated assault, armed robbery, pedophilia, torture, or kidnapping. A violent rated juvenile is convicted of a crime and receives a lengthy jail sentence of at least thirty-six months or more. (Smith, 1999). 3. Chronic- The youth is defined as a "persistent offender." The recidivism rate is Extremely high (about fifty-four percent) (Smith, 1999) and chronic rated juveniles usually re-offend within thirty-six months after release from jail. These youth can be identified by experts based on their age, academic achievement, family history, drug and alcohol abuse and delinquency including gang involvement (Smith, 1999). According to many theorists, although categorizing is necessary, there is not enough evidence suggesting that violent offenders tend to persist and develop violent careers. There are four principles used to assess dangerousness in juveniles according to Mulvey & Lidz (1995). They are as follows: 1. Relative probability- A method devised primarily to lend itself to research emphasizing possible courses of treatment by asking the clinician to consider relative level of dangerousness in different possible settings. 2. Multi-Variable or Multi Dimensional Assessment- This method is considered an important breakthrough for clinicians in assessing dangerousness. This assessment is a multifaceted concept and assesses dangerousness by including biological, psychological and sociological factors. 3. Projective Nature of Assessment (Establishing prior patterns of dangerous behavior)- The assessment focuses on the fact that dangerousness cannot be predicted in the absence of an established pattern of violence. Clinicians must be able to include personality and situational factors along with criminal record. 4. Situational assessment- A clinician is summoned by court or prison service to assess the dangerousness of a subject. The assessment will only refer to the dangerousness the clinician is being asked to assess not other types of dangerous behavior. Environmental and Personal Issues contributing to Maladaptive Behavior Substance abuse by parents has been reported to correlate with recidivism and it also demonstrated that involvement with drugs often leads to further criminal activity (Niarhos & Routh, 1992). However, theorists Wierson and Forehand (1995) suggested that substance abusers were less likely to reoffend if they received drug and alcohol treatment while incarcerated. In a study conducted by Wierson and Forehand (1995) along with Harman, Latessa, and Holmes in 1995, it was found that such treatment targets and reduces substance abuse, which is a primary contributor to criminal behavior and ultimately lessens the rate of reoffending. Wainwright (2000) stated reasons as having an adverse effect in terms of maladaptive behavior that a juvenile would possess was that a sober parent would be more aware and able to curtail negative situations with their child as they arise. There would have been increased communication in the household, more parental availability and supervision, and more importantly, no parental influence on criminal activity. Demographics such areas are age, socioeconomic status, race, size of a household, and gender play an important role in juvenile recidivism. The area that tends to have the greatest impact on recidivism is age with regards to when a juveniles criminal behavior began and the type of crime committed. There have been several studies such as the Midcity Project in Boston, Massachusetts, and the Orange County in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, conducted by theorists that have shown age at first offense is directly linked to recidivism. Findings of such studies, revealed that younger offenders were found to have increasingly higher rates of reoffending (Wierson & Forehand, 1995). A discrepancy with Dembos theory was found by Niarhos and Routh in a 1992 study they conducted which explained that recidivism in juveniles is not predicted by age at first arrest, but rather by the length of the checkup period through court supervision. A study conducted by Niarhos and Routh (1992) revealed that the follow up time of subjects by other theorists conducting the same theory, was too long a period of time. They contend that their study focused on subjects for approximately one year after incarceration as opposed to studies involving follow-up from twenty months to five years. It appears that the methodology of studies focusing on age and its significance in juvenile recidivism allowed for a greater number of offenses to be committed by way of longer follow-up periods and more self reported offenses (Niarhos & Routh, 1992). Socioeconomic status is thought by many theorists to play an important role in recidivism. A study conducted by Rutter and Giller in 1984 found that persons at a lower socioeconomic status were more apt to repeat their offenses. In 1983, Loeber and Dishion (1983) conducted a similar study and found that socioeconomic status may not be directly related to recidivism but to a significant variable leading up to recidivism. Non standardized measurements of socioeconomic status as it related to recidivism allowed for inconsistencies and contributed to unparalleled findings. Family size and birth order is believed to have an influence on recidivism. In larger families it was found that juveniles that are the youngest or one of the younger children were more prone to commit crimes (Kazdin, 1995). In terms of family structure, it was found that recidivists were more likely to come from broken homes than non-recidivists (Kazdin, 1995). Furthermore, research has also identified a linkage between delinquency and the early loss of a parent through separation or death. According to Harris (2010), race and Gender are factors that lead to recidivism and juvenile arrest. According to the United States Crime Report, in 2002 males accounted for 82.6 percent of violent crimes. Of this percentage, juvenile males represented 22.3 percent of all violent crimes. Overall, individuals under age twenty-one committed 43.7 percent of all violent crimes. Studies such as the ProDES system in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which collects data immediate following disposition in Juvenile court, after admission to the program, prior to discharge from the program, and six months after discharge have also examined recidivism using arrests as the primary measure for predicting maladaptive behavior, whereas this study canvasses a variety of factors, including length of incarceration, sex, age, race, birth order, sexuality, behavioral, familial, substance abuse, length of first incarceration, exposure to delinquent peers, re-arrests, abuse, socioeconomic status, history of delinquency and age at first incarceration (Fader, 2000). Other Contributing Factors to Juvenile Recidivism Delinquent behavior was also consistently associated with academic performance. Lower academic performance was shown to be linked to delinquency (Niarhos & Routh, 1992). Poor school attendance is predictive of recidivism (Niarhos & Routh, 1992). There is evidence that linked different clinical diagnoses with recidivism. Clinical diagnoses related to re-offending include affective disorders, ADHD and depression (Myner, 1998). Finally, child abuse has also shown to be a factor in later delinquency. It has also been indicated in a large number of cases where delinquent youths have been studied, and where they were found to have been physically abused by an adult at some point in life (Kazdin, 1995; Myner, 1998). Summary This chapter offered a description of the techniques and procedures used in order to ascertain the pathological and demographic predictors of recidivism in juvenile offenders. In measuring effectiveness, it is essential to know what works in juvenile corrections. The foundation for juvenile offenders such as familial history and lifestyle was discussed, including the issues that affected delinquent juveniles as well. Focus was placed on personality and situational factors as well as the youths delinquency history. Further information was provided concerning the 3 types of juvenile offenders­ serious, violent and chronic and the principles used to assess dangerousness: Relative probability, multivariable/multi dimensional, projective nature of assessment, and situational assessment. Juvenile recidivism is defined as re-offending within a limited timeframe. The correlation between recidivism and demographics, behavior, familial, school, and crime-related variables as well as birth order, as it relates to personality was researched. Parents criminal and substance abuse backgrounds were reviewed, as were the socioeconomic status, family size and age at the time offenses in comparison to recidivism. Finally, information concerning contributing factors for recidivism such as child abuse, depression, ADHD, and conduct disorder were discussed. References Delisi, M. (2009). Juvenile Delinquency 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook. SAGE Publications. Dembo, R., Williams, L., Getreu, A., Genung, L., Schmeidler, J., Berry, E., Wish, E. and LaVoie, L. (1991). A longitudinal study of the relationships among marijuana/hashish use, cocaine use and delinquency in a cohort of high risk youths. Journal of Drug Issues. 21(2), 271-312. Fader, J. (2000). Factors Involved In Delinquency Program Commitment Decisions for First-Time Juvenile Offenders, Crime and Justice Research Institute. Harris, Patricia M. (2009) Offender Classification.21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook. SAGE Publications. Jones, P. R., Harris, P. W., Fader, J., & Grubstein, L. (2001). Identifying chronic juvenile offenders. Justice Quarterly, 18(3), 479-507. Loeber, R. and T.J. Dishion (1983) “Early Predictors of Male Delinquency: A Review.” Psychological Bulletin 94(1):68-99. Mulvey, E., & Lidz, C. (1995). Conditional prediction: A model for research on dangerousness to others in a new era. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 18, 129-143. Myner, J. Santman, J. Cappelletty, G. and Perlmutter, B. (1998). Variables related to recidivism among juvenile offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 42(1), 65-80. Niarhos, F. J., & Routh, D. K. (1992). The role of clinical assessment in the juvenile court: Predictors of juvenile dispositions and recidivism. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 151–159. Smith, D.J. (1999). Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions background briefing, Centre for Law and Society, University of Edinburgh. Wainwright, A. (2000). Parental Substance Abuse Attributes to Conduct Disorders and Juvenile Delinquency. Master of Science in Criminal Justice, Youngstown State University, Department of Criminal Justice. Ward, Jeffrey T. Gibson, Chris L. (2010) Theories of Violence. Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention. SAGE Publications. Wierson, M., and Forehand, R. (1995). Predicting Recidivism in Juvenile Delinquents: the Role of Mental Health Diagnoses and the Qualification of Conclusions by Race. Behavior Research Theory, 33(1): 63-67. Read More