Profiling and Counter-Terrorism - Term Paper Example

? Profiling and Counter-Terrorism al Affiliation This paper generally addresses the different approaches in profiling and how they are beneficial in aiding investigation of terrorizing crimes within societies. Terrorism can be domestic or international, but all have the same characteristics, which include threatening, destructions through deaths, causing injuries, and intimidating the society and authorities for their varying desires. Profiling has come a long way in the last century and has developed to more advanced ways to move beyond the physical evidence to chemical and biological evidences, performed through DNA and psychological profiling. It should be noted that profiling aids in producing suggestions to leads and reducing the searching number close to the suspects. The document addresses four broad approaches of profiling; Crime Scene Analysis (CSA), Diagnostic Evaluation (DE), Investigative Psychology (IP), and Geographic profiling (GP), which employ various techniques of profiling in countering terrorist crimes and attacks. Keywords: Profiling, Crimes, Psychologists, Psychiatrists, Physical and Biological Evidence, Terrorism, Suspects, Offenders, Victims, CSA, DE, Geographical Profiling, IP, Crime Scene Introduction to Profiling and Counter Terrorism Investigations in criminal cases around the world have evolved with time to increase the chances of getting to the lead, which can aid private investigators and police teams to solve the case and catch the law offenders. Terrorism crimes are terrifying incidences and every nation’s federal and local government has to be prepared to handle such cases, either in prevention before or after terror occurrences. Some of these crimes tend to occur in various patterns that can be traced, studied, and enable police investigators know the offenders better. Despite the fact that the perpetrators nowadays carry out their unlawful acts after proper planning and execution, more scientific and advanced methods can still help in profiling. According to Muller “criminal profiling is the process of using available information about a crime and crime scene to compose a psychological portrait of the unknown perpetrator of the crime” (2000, p. 235). The personal behaviours and characteristics in the criminal cases enable the investigators in analysis of the scene, to be able to make a generalization or a prediction of the future incident. Terrorism cases entail forceful attacks to cause destruction among other threatening or injurious incidences. Sometimes, the victims of terrorism are found dead and their bodies act as centres of study, which give an insight as to why they were chosen as victims for the crime, as well as how the offender thinks and acts. The scene of the crime can tell a lot of information based on crimes and perpetrators by analysing evidence of weapons and the choice of spot of crime if repeated. In most cases, profiling is used in serial crimes and on serial offenders who desire to sustain their own mythology. Profiling is not only a technique employed by antiterrorism units to counter terrorists threats and attacks, but provide these units in the security and defence departments of the government with necessary strategies they can adopt, while interrogating such offenders, since their psychological aspect has been studied. There are different approaches and types of profiling that enable investigators to narrow their search to possible number of suspected criminals. Types can be DNA, criminal, racial, offender, or victim focused among others that are techniques used in various approaches below. Approaches to Profiling Geographical profiling The approach deals with techniques that support in analysis of location linking to a series of crimes to produce leads on the locations of the offenders, or where they are coming from. Most of the geographical profilers use the network and communication systems to monitor, trace, and analyse the signals to spot the original locations. It has been made easier through the continued globalization that links organizations communication channels, connecting individuals from long distances such that the signals can be intercepted, diverted, filtered, or even decoded in search of evidence for specific investigative leads, when a warranty is issued. According to Tong et al, the techniques focus on the probable spatial behaviour of the criminal within the nearby environments the crime site locations, and the spatial relationship of events between the various crimes sites as reported or observed (2009). Profilers can then look into the information coming in or going out of the different sites of crime location, and use location to understand the characteristic of the suspected criminal. The software that aids in geographical profiling (GP) plays around with locating and mapping the addresses used in a crime. In this sense, GP act as a powerful decision support tool to assist in managing and viewing large volume of information as generated in a crime investigation; profilers can be able to roughly point to an offender through a geographic crime pattern generated from the computerised GP system (“Geographic profiling,” n.d.). Take an example of an operating gang terrorizing residents in a particular county. Children and adults are sometimes kidnapped and the criminals decide to contact the family to pursuit of their objective. They can call from multiple locations, but through geographical profiling, it is possible to map the different locations starting with the origin of the crime scene, then locating the calling points as related crime sites and giving a suggestion of where he or she is based or operating from. In crimes where credit cards have been stolen and victims forced to give the passwords before being murdered, and later used to make withdrawals from ATMs; such information from each transaction in a retail outlet aid in GP (Rossmo, n.d.). However, preventing terrorist attacks using GP methods will depend on whether the spatial behaviour of the terrorists reflects those of serial offenders. It may difficult to trace on strange terrorism crime, but so far, police have used it to prioritize suspects. Scotland Yard and Royal Canadian Mounted Police are few of the law enforcement agencies that have successfully used it. Geographical profilers aid not only in developing a geographic focus for investigation, but also in identifying catchment areas, producing maps related to crimes for briefing of evidence in courts and calculating distance, speed, and time to capture the movement of the offender in a given time period. Crime Scene Analysis (CSA) The approach is critical in assisting the legal officers to understanding the physical evidence in a criminal case, after the analysis of the evidence gathered from the crime scenes. It is a common approach in criminal profiling by the FBI in the United States, and involves forensic expertise who performs the chemical and physical analysis on the evidence. With the latter advancements, there is a need to look beyond the physical evidence of the uneasily detectible substances like semen, blood spatters, and fingerprints, thanks to victimology and DNA profiling that support the forensic investigation. CSA model categorizes offenders into two; organized non social and disorganized asocial offenders who demonstrate distinct characteristics in the way they execute their crimes. As the names suggests, they have organized and disorganized personalities, such that disorganized criminals may show little or lack of premeditation, and probably leaving traces of evidence behind at the crime scene, due to their low intelligence, while organized offenders are reasonably intelligent, who best attempt to erase or hide discovery of evidence that can lead their arrest in a crime scene. According to Douglas et al, CSA approach conducts criminal profiling in a six stage process; beginning with profiling inputs, decision process modeling, and crime assessment, generating criminal profile, investigation, and finally, apprehension stage respectively (1986). Crime scene analysts have to spend most of their valuable time in the field. They collect the physical and biological evidences at the scene and victim’s bodies, which are then taken to the lab, and the samples analyzed by the technicians and forensic expertise. Stage 1: Profiling input initiates the criminal generating profile process and deals with collection of all information relevant in resolving the crime. It involves a proper depiction of the crime scene, background area, and the environment events in the time of scene. According to Travis and Rau, “investigators should approach the crime scene investigation as if it will be their only opportunity to preserve and recover these physical clues” (2000, p.1). Information is gathered about the victim in the crime, a preliminary police assessment report is conducted, and forensic information gathered from the crime scene. Due to these activities, crime scene investigators secure the crime scene, take photographs at different angles of the scene and victims, sketch and diagram the scene, and forensic expertise handling autopsy, toxicology, or serology should provide a report of their findings. Victimology and DNA analysis aid in this stage. Stage 2: A meaningful pattern of the inputs from stage 1are developed. Profilers arrange the inputs to identify decision points, where the homicide type and style is determined to classify the murder. At times, the murder occurs as a secondary factor necessary to execute the primary intention; hence, realizing the main objective of the offender is also critical, as is determining the victims’ vulnerability and the risks the offenders were taking in crime execution. Deducing sequence of acts executed in crime, the length of time the offender takes to execute each, and the location information of the crime and destructions, such as victim’s death are necessary to tell more on murderer operations (Douglas et al, 1986). Stage 3: The profilers endeavor to reconstruct the crime events in their minds for crime assessment. They try to put themselves in the crime scene psychologically, and evaluate the possible behaviors of the offender and victim. It considers the motivation of the offender and why a certain victim was chosen to categorize the offender. Stage 4: This entails construction of a criminal profile based on all collected and generated information so far. Any information forwarded to the profiler from the lab, crime scene’s physical evidence, constructed series of events, police reports among others are brought together. The aim is to describe the offender through his behavioral organization in relation to the crime and assist in formulation of a strategy for investigation. In stage 5, recommendations in investigations are used to match the suspects with the profile. Furthermore, investigation in progress is further supported by a written report to the requesting agency. Often, once the analogy of a criminal profile is established that would enhance the investigating team’s effort to apprehend the offender, which solves the crime. Crime scene investigators have a tedious task, and besides careful adherence to chain of evidence procedures in the lab, they play a role to testify of their findings in court. Investigative psychology (IP) This approach in counterterrorism involves various psychological disciplines and allows the criminal behavior and characteristics to be understood, just like any form of human behavior. Investigative psychology is concerned with all the forms of criminality, from simple to large organized threats and attacks. It considers the psychological input, and since it was designed with a scientific approach in mind, it integrates various ranges of psychological aspects in the diverse areas of civil and criminal investigation (Youngs & Canter, 2005). The core basis of its theory argues that investigators can acquire much information by reviewing the crimes of an offender and how he or she executes them. The approach focuses on offender profiling, which involves working backwards from the crime scene data to minimize the search, which has historically developed by drawing from psychiatry and psychology routine practices (Towl & Crigton, 2010). Investigative psychologists take time to study the detective decision making, what led to such a decision, and the investigative strategy, before they assist to develop procedures necessary for interviewing of the suspects of the crime, and ways to predict violence. They further explore the related events of the crime to assess the pattern of the criminal action, so as to show connection with the offender’s characteristics. Canter was convinced that there existed a relationship between the actions and the characteristics, insinuating the relation between the offending and the offender that could aid in solving the profiling equation (Canter & Kukauskiene, 2008). Ina series of murder cases terrorizing the residents and intimidating the society and local government, some aspects of psychological methods in analysis have always been employed. Based on the various information supplied from the security and defence departments, reports on previous crimes can be analyzed .Psychological principles are used on the crime information on would to suggest the characteristics (possible lifestyle, living area etc) of the offender. Investigative psychologists can hence prevent a terrorist attack, working out to aid in arrest of the offender by predicting the offender characteristic from a closely analyzed offending behavior. Psychologists’ empirical study and framework generated to understand the processes in the case would provide substantial knowledge greater understanding for the investigating team. The approach aided reduction of suspects to identify the Yorkshire ripper in UK (peter Sutcliffe case) and Mardi Gra Bomber still in London (Wilson, 2012). Investigative psychology has its own critics of immature paradigm, and is often accused of directing investigators in wrong leads. Perhaps one of its controversial applications is in racial profiling in determining suspected terrorists, especially when dealing with international crimes connected with immigration trends. Diagnostic evaluation (DE) The approach is more of a deductive principle that addresses each criminal case uniquely, by drawing the psychological features from the materials provided by the investigating team or police, to filling in the gaps in case. Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and numerous medical and mental health professionals enable the profiling service in crimes, by relying on their clinical experience to answer questions relating to the offenders, victims, and crime scenes (Turvey, 2012). The details of a specific incident enables them to provide more insight of who are involved in the crime case (victim and offender) and more often, how the attacks were done in relation to what happened and or motivated the crime. This is possible through the analysis of the behavior demonstrated at the crime scene and the reconstruction of the incidence, to capture the reasoning and mental abilities of the offenders. The medical professional evaluates the offenders from a mental disturbed point of view, so as to use their clinical experience and judgment to contribute to crime examination. According to Ebisike, these practitioners have developed an advanced knowledge of the psychological disorders and mental health illnesses in their practice, which better places them in a position to generate a profile of offenders capable of committing certain kinds of terrorism crimes, especially those demonstrating elements of paraphilias, psychopathology, and sadomasochistic behaviors (2008). Forensic psychiatrists handle a lot of responsibilities in crimes; from evaluation of psychiatric disability or competency of offenders before trials, use of their competent knowledge in crimes to suggest of the mental fitness of the offender (considering that some form of mental disturbance could influence subjects to execute various crimes), to profiling crime scenes. They work closely with the victims of crime, whether dead or alive, and make assessments on the offender, to help describe how a crime occurred. Conclusion Profiling is a broad concept conducted in hospitals procedures, in the legal systems in prisons, and police departments among other areas, in effort to assist in resolving crimes. As offenders in society learns diverse ways to execute crime, falsify, and hide their terrorizing crimes, the old and more advanced scientific approaches in profiling have been aiding in obtaining the characteristics and behaviors of the suspects, by diverse techniques based on experience, analysis of biological and physical evidences, seeking a relationship between the offending and the offender, and geographical mapping among others to produce leads in criminal arrests. Profiling assists in preventing further crimes and acts of terrorism, by contributing in the arrest of these offenders through the generated profiles. Reference List Canter, D. V. & Zukauskiene, R. (Eds). (2008). Psychology and Law: Bridging the Gap. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Douglas, J.E., Ressler, R. K.., Burgesss, A. W., & Hartman C. R. (1986). Criminal Profiling from Crime Scene Analysis. Behavioural Sciences and the Law, 4(4), 401- 421. Retrieved from http://www.ravenndragon.net/montgomery/crimprofiling.pdf   Ebisike, N. (2008). Offender Profiling in the Courtroom: The Use and Abuse of Expert Witness Testimony. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Geographic Profiling. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.txstate.edu/gii/geographic-profiling/overview.html Muller, D. A. (2000). Criminal Profiling. Homocide Studies, 4(3), 234-264 Retrieved from http://www.uwinnipeg.ca/academic/ddl/viol_cr/files/readings/reading22.pdf Rossmo, K. (n.d.). Geographical profiling: NCIS conference 1998. Retrieved from https://www.e-education.psu.edu/files/geog885q/file/Lesson_04/krossmo.pdf Tong, S., Bryant R. P. & Horvath, M. A. H. (2009). Understanding Criminal Investigation. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.  Towl, G. J. & Crighton, D. A. (Eds.). (2010). Forensic Psychology. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. Travis, J. & Rau, R. M. (2000, January). Crime Scene Investigation: A guide for Law Enforcement. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/178280.pdf Turvey, B. E. (Ed). (2012). Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis. 4th Ed. Oxford: Academic Press.  Wilson, G. N., (2012, March 20). Profiling a Killer. Retrieved from http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/profiling-a-killer Read More