Do Duration and Motivations of Internet Use Improve Social Skills - Literature review Example

Literature Review/Methodology Paper: Do Duration and Motivations of Internet Use Impair/Improve Social Skills, Social Anxiety, and Loneliness, among the Youth, and are there Media Richness, Gender, and Age Differences? Name Instructor Class April 24, 2014 Word Count: Some people are online nearly 24/7, and yet, they may have more social anxiety and feel lonelier than ever. This is not an opinion, but has been proven through some studies already- the irony of being connected and disconnected through the Internet at the same time (Bonetti, Campbell, & Gilmore, 2010; Deniz, 2010). The age of the Internet has vastly changed communication practices and patterns, as modern generation nowadays, especially the youth, use it prevalently for various communication purposes, sometimes even more than they use face-to-face communication processes. The exact effects of using the Internet on social skills continue to be unclear because of mixed empirical evidence. Though people use the Internet to communicate with family, friends, and peers at work, even superiors, some researchers showed that Internet use has led to poor social skills and adjustment (Engelberg & Sjöberg 2004), as well as bullying behaviors (Schoffstall & Cohen, 2011), anxiety, and loneliness (Kim, LaRose, & Peng, 2009), while others learned that using the Internet for socialization can develop better social skills (Campbell et al., 2006; Titov et al., 2008). Researchers have not studied if only certain uses of the Internet can contribute to poor social skills and psychological health, and if media richness, gender, and age can moderate positive/negative outcomes. The study aims to discuss the theoretical background, literature review, rationale, methodology, results, and discussion of findings of the intended research. It will explore if and how age, gender, and duration and motivations of Internet use affect social skills, social anxiety, and loneliness. The next section identifies and defines the variables of this study, as well as the communication model used. Theoretical Background The theoretical background explores the concepts and theories used in the study. The independent variables are duration and motivation in Internet usage, while the dependent variables are communication skills, social anxiety, and loneliness. The four included Internet activities were e-mail, chatting, social networking, and video calling. The moderating variables are media richness, gender, and age. Duration of Internet use refers to how long participants used the Internet. Using the Internet for more than five hours a day at least five times a week is considered heavy usage (Joiner et al., 2012, p.371). The motivations for Internet use may depend on the kind of tools employed. The motivations usually for e-mail are “interpersonal communication, personal gain, and business reasons;” for chatting and video calling, information-seeking, affection, social utility, and accessibility; and for social networking, social connection, shared identities, shared images, content gratification, social investigations, social networking surfing, and updating (Park, Chung, & Lee, 2012, p.358). These motivations are not meant to be exhaustive, but they try to include as many motivations as possible. To allow respondents to add other motivations and purposes, the category of “Others” is added when asking about the purposes and motivations of using the Internet in the survey questionnaire. Communication skills refer to the ability to create and maintain interpersonal relationships (Ceyhan, 2011, p.71). Social anxiety or social phobia is a disorder that refers to having intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in front of unfamiliar people or through public scrutiny (Bonetti et al., 2010, p.280). Loneliness is the difference between one’s desired and present interpersonal relationships (Zysberg, 2012, p.37). Media richness refers to the intrinsic characteristics of the Internet tool: “transmission of multiple cues (e.g., vocal inflection, gestures); (b) immediacy of feedback; (c) language variety; and (d) the personal focus” (Park et al., 2012, p.358). These concepts are interconnected through three theories on social media use. The theories that help understand the connection among these research variables are social presence model, media richness theory, and uses and gratification theory. The social presence model asserts that communication technologies present different levels and nature of social presence (Park et al., 2012, p.358). Social presence refers to the feeling that the actors are all directly involved in the communication process (Park et al., 2012, p.358). The model asserts that communication technologies can be put in a spectrum, from low to high levels of social presence, and users tend to choose the medium that offer the highest social presence (Park et al., 2012, p.358). The preference for social presence level, nevertheless, can depend on the purposes and motivations of users. People who do not want or need to see their recipients of communication will most likely prefer chatting or e-mailing to video calling, for example. The next theory is the media richness theory. Like the social presence model, the media richness theory also believes that users differentiate communication tools according to media richness, from lean to rich properties (Park et al., 2012, p.358). As mentioned, these properties refer to: “transmission of multiple cues (e.g., vocal inflection, gestures); (b) immediacy of feedback; (c) language variety; and (d) the personal focus” (Park et al., 2012, p.358). The media richness theory believes that people match media richness with the task complexity of target uses or motivations, wherein face-to-face interaction is preferred when sending ambiguous messages, while written or electronic media for unambiguous messages (Park et al., 2012, p.358). Communication skills impact the ability to match the right communication medium to the right communication tool (Park et al., 2012, p.358). Internet tools vary in media richness and social presence which can affect the social presence of Internet use that, in turn, can affect its ability to facilitate and/or improve social skills. For instance, chatting is generally text-based, though graphics and photos, as well as videos, can be sent through it. It does not provide users the ability to see the actual non-verbal cues of their communication partners. On the contrary, video calling is more media-rich because people can see each other’s verbal and non-verbal expressions. The kind of media tools to be used, nevertheless, depends on actual user purposes and motivations, as the uses and gratification theory posits. The uses and gratification theory assert that people are rational decision makers in choosing media tools and purposes (Park et al., 2012, p.358). Their motivations and purposes for using the Internet affect media selection and use (Park et al., 2012, p.358). Adding a social cognitive perspective to uses and gratification theory helps connect expected uses and benefits to Internet experiences and Internet usage behaviors (LaRose & Eastin, 2004, p.360). The more that people gains positive benefits from Internet usage, the more they use it (LaRose & Eastin, 2004, p.360). The theory is saying that, for instance, if people use the Internet to improve social skills, by providing communication practice or gathering initial friends, and if their social skills do improve as a result, it is possible that it can facilitate and improve the formation of social skills. All the mentioned theories, nonetheless, have not considered how age or gender moderates their effects on communication skills, social anxiety, and loneliness. These theories focus more on how choosing certain media tools are factors of perceptions of media richness and individual/social purposes and motivations. The next section reviews the literature on Internet use, motivations, duration, and social skills effects. Literature Review This section summarizes past research on Internet use, duration, and purposes, and how they affect social skills, anxiety, and loneliness. Several studies showed that high Internet usage, especially Internet addiction, can lead to problems in social skills. Engelberg and Sjöberg (2004) investigated the degree to which emotional and interpersonal skills are related to Internet use. They evaluated respondents’ (n=41 economics college students) social skills and personality variables through instruments of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and personality inventory scale. Engelberg and Sjöberg (2004) hypothesized that high Internet use would be negatively connected to interpersonal skills. They also asserted that following a “mainstream value system” is good for social integration, and Internet addicts would deviate in social values (Engelberg & Sjöberg, 2004, p.42). Their findings showed that high Internet users had lower EI scores, and practiced deviant social values, though frequent Internet use was not linked to a particular personality dimension (Engelberg & Sjöberg, 2004, p.45). Though the small sampling is a limitation for the study, it suggests further research that studies the connection between Internet addiction and deviant social values. Kim et al. (2009) studied three hypotheses on the role of psychological well-being as the cause or the result of compulsive usage. The three hypotheses were based on three theories: cognitive-behavioral model, social skill account model, and sociocognitive model of unregulated Internet use. Their research design included 635 college students. Their findings showed that, depending on the effects of Internet use on psychological health, “social compensation model indicates that individuals who lack offline social skills benefit from online interaction, while the rich-get-richer model suggests that they might suffer from more negative outcomes” (Kim et al., 2009, p.454). Kim et al. (2009) postulated also that using the Internet for entertainment is worse than using it for social purposes because the former purpose can reinforce social skills deficiency and other social problems (p.455). The study is important because it shows that not only do lonely or depressed people are more attracted to high Internet use, they are most likely to also use it in ways that harm them more, socially and psychologically. Several more studies empirically connect Internet use and poor social skills. Ceyhan (2011) aimed to understand whether Internet use purposes affect students’ “problematic Internet use behavior” and their communication skills (p.71). These purposes were entertainment and establishing/maintaining social relationships. His participants included 411 college students. Ceyhan (2011) agreed with Kim et al. (2009) that using the Internet for entertainment can lead to Internet addiction and related negative social and psychological outcomes. Ceyhan (2011) also learned from his study that using the Internet to socially interact with strangers also contributed to Internet addiction and poor communication skills. Ceyhan’s study is important in signifying how particular uses of the Internet can lead to problematic offline social behaviors, although other factors may also interplay, such as personality variables, parenting styles, social class, and gender. Another study emphasized young respondents. Schoffstall and Cohen (2011) focused more on kids and how Internet use affects their offline social skills. They used a survey research design that included input from peers and self-evaluation, where sampling was composed of 192 kids from the third to sixth grades. They learned that kids who performed cyber aggression were reported as having social issues “at the individual, interaction, relationship, and group levels of social functioning” and there were no gender and developmental effects on cyberaggression (Schoffstall & Cohen, 2011, pp.600-601). This study is important because it provides evidence that children’s social skills can become much worse if they use the Internet for online offenses. Though cyberbullying and physical bullying may be different constructs, but using the Internet for deviant social behaviors can spill over to socially harmful offline behaviors. Other studies showed contrary results, however, wherein, depending on Internet purpose and motivations, Internet usage can improve social skills. Titov et al. (2008) conducted randomized controlled trials to examine if therapist assisted (CaCCBT) or self-guided (CCBT) treatments (all Internet and e-mail based programs) can reduce social phobia or social anxiety. Their sampling included 98 individuals with social phobia who were randomly assigned to CaCCBT group, CCBT group, or to a waitlist control group. Findings showed that around 77% of CaCCBT and 33% of CCBT group participants completed all lessons, and that significant differences were shown after treatment between CaCCBT and control groups, and between the CaCCBT and CCBT groups. Results did not show significant differences after the treatment between the CCBT and control groups, while CCBT participants who finished the six lessons attained good development. This study is important because it shows that CaCCBT and CCBT procedures can work in treating social skills problems. The Internet can boost social behaviors when carefully programmed. Park et al. (2012) showed from their study that motivation affect media richness choice. It is unclear how and if media richness impact social skills in particular, although the studies of Campbell et al. (2006) and Bonetti et al. (2010) suggested that if people used the Internet for socialization, then media richness may be an important determinant for their media choice and social skills changes. Another supportive study that connects Internet use and social skills came from Campbell et al. (2006). They hypothesized that the Internet may be used as a medium for growing social networks and, accordingly, boosting the probability of forming meaningful relationships, self-confidence, social abilities, and social support. They conducted an online survey involving 188 people. They also performed paper and pencil tests to an offline sample group of 27 undergraduate university students, who were habitual Internet users. Their findings indicated that there was no connection between Internet usage and depression, anxiety, or social fearfulness, and some of those who attested that they chiefly used the Internet for online chat asserted that the Internet is “psychologically beneficial to them” (p.78). Campbell et al. (2006) also learned that this same group of people believed that high Internet users are lonely and the Internet has addictive qualities (p.78). Campbell et al. (2006) maintained that “chat” users who are socially apprehensive may be using the Internet as a “form of low-risk social approach and an opportunity to rehearse social behavior and communication skills, which, may help them improve interaction with offline, face-to-face, social environments” (p.78). Campbell et al. (2006) corroborated Titov et al.’s findings by showing that using the Internet can be therapeutic for those who use it for social skills development. The connection between Internet use duration and motivations are discussed next. As for loneliness and social anxiety, some studies showed that too much Internet usage, even for socialization purposes, can increase loneliness and social anxiety. The study of Engelberg and Sjöberg (2004) showed that regular users and “Internet addicts” showed higher degree of loneliness and lower social adjustment (refers to balance between time spent on work and leisure) (Engelberg & Sjöberg, 2004, p.42). Their study noted, however, high emotional intelligence can decrease feelings of loneliness because it provides Internet users the ability to manage self-emotional cues and to respond to emotional cues of others effectively than those with low emotional intelligence (Engelberg & Sjöberg, 2004, p.46). The study suggests that lonely people may be using the Internet more because of social anxiety or other psychological problems, and the Internet may not be providing the right skills and knowledge to cope with their loneliness (Engelberg & Sjöberg, 2004, p.46). Deniz (2010) studied the impact of high Internet use on loneliness levels of 167 high school students. He revealed that even when the Internet was used mainly for communication, excessive use resulted to more loneliness among these teenagers. Joiner et al. (2012) conducted a ten-year follow-up study to understand the relations among gender, Internet use, and Internet anxiety. The relevant finding of their study is that gender affected Internet use, where females used the Internet more for communication, while males used it more for games and entertainment (Joiner et al., 2012, p.372). Several studies prove, on the contrary, that designing Internet use for socialization, or using it for socialization, can decrease loneliness and social anxiety. Bonetti, Campbell, and Gilmore (2010) studied differences in usage of online communication patterns between children and adolescents with and without self-reported loneliness and social anxiety. Their participants included 626 students, from ages 10 to 16 years old. Using a survey design, findings showed that both children and adolescents who were lonely talked about intimate details online more than those who did not report loneliness. They also believed that communication online compensated their social skills weaknesses (Bonetti et al., 2010, p.282). This study also showed that age was connected to Internet motivation and frequency. Adolescents use the Internet more than children, and while children were motivated by entertainment and games, the former used the Internet more for relationship and lifestyle purposes (Bonetti et al., 2010, p.283). Moreover, gender affected Internet use and duration. Girls used the Internet more than boys, but usually to communicate with family and friends, while boys used it more for games, entertainment, and meeting new people (Bonetti et al., 2010, p.283). Campbell et al. (2006) supported the findings of Bonetti et al. (2010), where they found out that the Internet can protect lonely or socially anxious people from further loneliness and social phobia. Their respondents believed that using the Internet provided practice for socialization that was beneficial for online and offline social interactions (Campbell et al., 2006, p.79). Using the Internet for socialization can improve social skills and relationships. Rationale The literature shows that high Internet usage may be a factor of loneliness and social anxiety, as well as result to them, and that, depending on the use of and design of Internet use, it can either decrease or improve social skills. Studies also showed that age and gender, can affect Internet use and duration, while Internet motivation affects media richness. The strengths of these researches are their empirical studies and exploration of old and new media and communication theories. These studies generally used survey research, although one used experimental research. These methods have empirical approaches that provide valid evidence on their topics. In addition, they used existing or proposed new theories. These theories helped connect the variables to past studies. Despite these strengths, there are weaknesses in sampling and methodology. Some of the studies are limited to small sampling and their locations. Differences across countries or races or cultures were not determined. Survey methodology also has its weaknesses. These weaknesses are memory limitations, poor self-assessment, and lack of understanding how each factor contributes to dependent variables. For instance, researchers may know that a correlation exists between two variables, but they cannot determine the mechanisms involved, as well as moderators and mediators. The literature does not address how the duration and purposes for Internet use and Internet usage can affect social skills, loneliness, and social anxiety altogether, and if there are gender, age, and media richness effects. Not all of the studies considered age and gender differences for instance. Age and gender can be moderating variables that can affect the relationship among variables, as well as the interactive effects. This topic on Internet use and social skills, loneliness, and social anxiety is worthy of investigation because Internet addiction can lead to harmful social skills and other negative social and health outcomes without proper parental guidance for kids and Internet usage education for adolescents. Students should also be aware of how Internet duration and motivations affect them socially and emotionally, so that their self-efficacy and self-regulation can be improved. Given the literature reviewed in this paper, the researcher poses the following research questions: 1) Does heavy Internet use impair social skills development regardless of age and gender? 2) Does social use of the Internet improve or worsen social skills? 3) Do specific Internet uses and Internet usage interplay work together or independently in impairing or boosting social skills development? 4) Does media richness contribute to improved social skills? 5) What is the relationship between Internet use duration and social anxiety and loneliness? 6) What is the relationship between Internet use purpose and social anxiety and loneliness? 7) What is the 8) Are young children more vulnerable to developing poor social skills if they grow up using the Internet for communication and socialization purposes? 9) Does gender have an impact on how Internet usage shapes social skills and psychosocial welfare? 10) duration, purpose and motivation in Internet usage, and media richness, while the dependent variables are communication skills, social anxiety, and loneliness. 11) Methodology Research Design I will use a survey research design because it can collect the most number of responses at the fastest time and most convenient time for participants. Participants I will target a hundred participants from thee cohorts. Grades three to four are considered as young children, grades four to seven are considered as older children, while higher grade levels up to college years are considered as older youths. Procedures I will conduct the survey after classes or during one of the classes if a teacher will permit it. They will fill out survey questionnaires that ask about their time of using the Internet and purposes. Two research assistants will be used for each group. They will be in charge of gathering information and assisting participants in their questions, especially where grade school students are concerned. Measurement I will measure the relationship among variables using statistical software or basic descriptive statistics if I find it hard to use the statistical software. Results The results will show that older age and gender can decrease the potential bad effects of internet usage on social skills. It will also show that younger people who use the Internet for more than socialization tends to have poor social skills too. References Bonetti, L., Campbell, M.A., & Gilmore, L. (2010). The relationship of loneliness and social anxiety with childrens and adolescents online communication. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 13(3), 279-285. Campbell, A.J., Cumming, S.R., & Hughes, I. (2006). Internet use by the socially fearful: Addiction or therapy? CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9(1), 69-81. Ceyhan, A.A. (2011). University students problematic internet use and communication skills according to the Internet use purposes. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 11(1), 69-77. Deniz, L. (2010). Excessive internet use and loneliness among secondary school students. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(1), 20-23. Engelberg, E., & Sjöberg, L. (2004). Internet use, social skills, and adjustment. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(1), 41-47. Joiner, R., Gavin, J., Brosnan, M., Cromby, J., Gregory, H., Guiller, J., Maras, P., & Moon, A. (2012). Gender, internet experience, internet identification, and internet anxiety: A ten-year followup. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 15(7), 370-372. Kim, J., LaRose, R., & Peng, W. (2009). Loneliness as the cause and the effect of problematic Internet use: The relationship between Internet use and psychological well-being. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(4), 451-455. LaRose, R., & Eastin, M.S. (2004). A social cognitive theory of Internet uses and gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(3), 358-377. Park, N., Chung, J., & Lee, S. (2012). Explaining the use of text-based communication media: an examination of three theories of media use. CyberPsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 15(7), 357-363. Schoffstall, C.L., & Cohen, R. (2011). Cyber aggression: The relation between online offenders and offline social competence. Social Development, 20(3), 587-604. Titov, N., Andrews, G., Choi, I., Schwencke, G., & Mahoney, A. (2008). Shyness 3: Randomized controlled trial of guided versus unguided Internet-based CBT for social phobia. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(12), 1030-1040. Zysberg, L. (2012). Loneliness and emotional intelligence. Journal of Psychology, 146(1/2), 37-46. Read More