A Challenge to Teachers of Communication Skills - Research Proposal Example

A Challenge to Teachers of Communication Skills I. Introduction Listening and speaking are skills in communication that are essential in curriculum programming. Thus, oral literacy should have a vital place in the curriculum. All the same, discrepancies between the levels of literacy of learners indicate that some of them fail to gain basic verbal skills for learning. And so, growing numbers of learners have poor aptitude as they progress through the school (Byram, 2001). Therefore, the objective of this paper is to analyse various theoretical perspectives on listening and speaking, to draw out pedagogical principles from these theoretical frameworks, and finally to develop an activity for enhancing oral competency of selected students. Instructional programs in listening and speaking skills have an important position in language curriculum all over the world at present. Ever-increasing demands for proficiency in English due to the emergence of English as the global language have given precedence to formulating more effective and efficient methods in teaching listening and speaking skills in English (Corden, 2000). It is consequently appropriate to evaluate the present theories and practices regarding the teaching of these vital literacy skills. Awareness of the nature and form of listening and speaking has experienced significant transformations in the recent decades, thus it is significant to examine several of those alterations and their repercussions for materials design and instructional programs. Previous assumptions of listening illustrated it as the proficiency in distinct skills, such as identifying abridged forms of words, identifying unified tools and key words in texts, and that these capabilities should shape the emphasis of teaching. Current assumptions of listening applied premises of cognitive psychology, which pioneered the concepts of top-down and bottom-up processing and put emphasis on the function of previous knowledge and perspective in comprehension. Acquisition of listening skills is currently treated as an interpretive mechanism (Myhill, Jones & Hopper, 2006). Simultaneously, the domains of conversational and discourse analysis introduced much about the nature and structure of verbal conversation and resulted in an awareness that reading written passages aloud could not present an appropriate foundation for enhancing the skills required to process actual discourse (Rybold, 2006). Therefore, current assumptions of listening highlight the listener’s role in applying techniques to enable, monitor and assess his/her listening as well as his/her speaking proficiencies. Theoretical Perspectives on Listening In this section, two different theoretical perspectives of listening, namely, listening as understanding and listening as acquisition will be taken into account. Listening as Understanding Listening as understanding is the conventional outlook about the nature and form of listening. This assumption of listening is founded on the theory that the primary role of listening in learning second language is to enable comprehension of spoken discourse. In order to understand the characteristic of listening mechanisms, it is important to take into account several of the features of spoken discourse and the particular difficulties they cause to listeners (Bygate, 2001). Spoken discourse has significant dissimilarities from written communication, and these dissimilarities can put in several domains to the understanding of how individuals process speech. For instance, spoken discourse is normally immediate. Verbal discourse has also been defined as possessing a linear construction since spoken discourse is normally constructed one phrase at a time, and longer expressions in discourse commonly comprise a number of coordinated clauses. The majority of the clauses employed are simple adjuncts. Moreover, spoken communication is generally context-specific and personal, presupposing common contextual knowledge. Finally, spoken discourses could be spoken with numerous different pronunciations, from non-standard or standard, and non-native or provincial (Myhill et al., 2006). Listening as Acquisition This particular model of teaching of listening is founded on several theories: (a) listening fulfils the objective of drawing out meaning from texts; (b) the language of speeches, particularly the exact expressions, grammar and words, employed by speakers are short-term meaning carriers; (c) and, teaching listening techniques can facilitate the development of effective listening among listeners (Pearce, Johnson, & Barker, 1995). Tasks utilised in materials design allow listeners to identify and respond on the common, specific, or stated meaning of statements. These tasks involve picture recognition, sequencing and summarising, as well as tasks intended to create valuable listening techniques. Activities not normally used when understanding is the emphasis of listening are those that necessitate precise identification and recall of expressions, grammar and words that transpired in the input (Rybold, 2006). Theoretical Perspectives on Speaking Conversational Practices A defined characteristic of conversational communication is the application of rigid expressions, or practices, that usually have particular purposes in dialogue and make the conversational communication natural. Pawley and Syder (1983 as cited in Myhill et al., 2006) claim that native speakers have a selection of numerous practices like these, that their application in suitable circumstances poses conversational communication that sounds native or natural, and that they should be taught as and employed as rigid expressions. Methods of Speaking A significant area of conversation is employing a method of speaking that is suitable to the given situations. Various methods of speaking reveal the functions age, gender, and social class of participants in conversations and also reveal expressions of courtesy. Various styles of speaking reveal points of view of the social positions of the participants in a specific conversational discourse. If the listener and speaker are seen to be of relatively equal position, an informal style of speech that underlines membership and commonality is appropriate (Cameron, 2003). If the partakers are viewed as being of unequal status, a more prescribed speech method is proper, one that defines the superiority of one speaker over the other. Effective handling of styles of speaking produces the sense of courtesy that is fundamental for pleasant social interactions (Rybold, 2006). Functions of Speech Several attempts have been made to categorise the roles of speaking in social relations. Brown and Yule (1983 as cited in Myhill et al., 2006) established a functional differentiation between the functions of speaking in social interaction, where in it functions to set up and sustain social interactions, and the transactional roles, which put emphasis on informational exchange. Each of these speech functions is significantly different in terms of form and purpose and necessitates distinct teaching frameworks. Three Pedagogical Principles Drawing from the theoretical perspectives on listening and speaking, the following three pedagogical principles are considered: (1) students need a rich array of experiences in listening and speaking; (2) students should be provided with opportunities to learn cautious and focused listening; (3) and learners should be exposed to activities that enhance their specific speaking proficiencies. Students need a rich array of experiences in listening and speaking Students confront a variety of conditions that demand language proficiencies. Consequently, experience with a range of listening and speaking tasks in school can enable students gain the capabilities they require to be successful. They have, for instance, to practice different forms of listening and speaking. Teachers could provide general parameters for listening and speaking, but particular forms of these two literacy skills, such as listening comprehension and formal speech, could require specialised lessons. Students should be provided with opportunities to learn cautious and focused listening Listening capabilities are fundamental for learning for the reason that they facilitate students in acquiring meanings and ideas, and to realise success in interacting or conversing with others. Activities inside and outside the school provides numerous listening opportunities, yet there are students who fail to make the most out of them because they allow their minds to move about aimlessly or they could focus on what their response would be instead on what a speaker is articulating. Teachers can explain to students why focused listening is important and even essential in some circumstances. For instance, doctors should be careful and focused in listening to their patients because accurate understanding of a patient’s health condition may save his/her life. The listening capabilities of students could be improved, monitored and examined by asking them about what they have heard. They could be furnished with activities in note-taking and afterwards could be asked about the information and assumptions that could be drawn out from their notes. Students can be trained to identify the dissimilarity between key ideas or less important points and information (Brindley, 1998). Students can also gain from activities in identifying the objective of the ideas they hear. It can be valuable if they are instructed to establish objectives for what they would like to learn from information they will hear and to track their performance in accomplishing their objectives. Learners can be trained to listen discriminatingly for particular types of information, such as the primary intention, the issues and any suggestions. They can even be examined for their capability to recognise the vital information in the midst of insignificant material and diversions (Pearce et al., 1995). Learners should be exposed to activities that enhance their specific speaking proficiencies Learners develop their formal speech when instructors present ideas on how to structure their insights for presentation. Learners can deliver improved speeches when they have the capability to structure their presentation in several different means, involving sequentially and thematically. They require training in structuring their speech around the tasks of problem solving and identification of cause and effects as well as similarities and differences (Goth, 2007). After choosing the most favourable means of structuring, they can exercise their speeches through the help of their classmates. Teachers can also assist learners in adjusting their speeches and casual speaking style so as to match up to the intended listener, the ideas to be conveyed, and the conditions of the event at which they will deliver their speech or they will communicate. The teachers can demonstrate how prominent speakers have adjusted their speeches in ways to complement these various situations. Teachers can allow students to convey insights to other people, peers and entire kinds of learners. They can gain skills in speaking on topics they are interested in or those that are assigned by the teacher. Practicing for debates and partaking in these activities help learners to understand both sides of different themes (Rybold, 2006). Students also gain from conversing with other people and from participation in theatrical activities. Students may find pleasure in sharing their personal experiences to the class. When presented with this task, they can gain from lessons on the components of good narrating skills. Teachers and students can give proposals for the speeches of students. In helpfully criticising others, students can gain skills in employing standards for fine speech and apply thoughtful social skills (Bygate, 2001). Thereby, they can develop and enhance their individual speaking proficiencies. Learners can also learn to deliver careful speeches and social skills by proposing potential enhancements to one another’s exercise speeches. Valuable experiences in speaking can result in better skills and high self-esteem in delivering speech in front of a large audience. II. Teaching Important Oracy Skills Becoming an active and focused listener and an expressive and confident speaker are fundamental skills for students in both life and learning situations. In this section, feasible series of tasks to teach important oracy skills to a group of students will be discussed. The role of the teacher in the execution of these activities involves helping students who find features of listening and speaking, academically or socially difficult. The following discussion will focus on the listening and speaking activities designed for a one-hour class session to enhance the knowledge of listening practices and speaking abilities of a group of keystage 1 students. It is important for these students to develop focused listening skills and articulate speaking abilities as their learning foundation. Tasks for Listening Skills For listening, the teacher will conduct a focused listening-reflecting activity with Mo McAuley’s The Tidy Drawer (see in Appendix A). The teacher will formulate questions about the short story. The story will be introduced: “This short story is about Abby who has a messy room and her mother who encourages her to organise her things.” The teacher will focus the children on the purpose for reading aloud: “In this short story, you are going to meet a mother and daughter who have an unhealthy relationship at first. As I read the short story, try to spot out who between these two characters have been misunderstood, and what did that character do about it?” The teacher will read the short story but s/he will have to practice reading the story first to enhance her expression. While reading the story, s/he will make remarks that are related to the focus. For instance, “Abby seem to thinks that her mother does not really care about her....,” “Now the mother thinks that Abby is quite a messy girl...,” “I wonder if Abby and her mother would be able to understand each other...” Then the teacher will pause momentarily at normal breaks for the questions and reactions of the children. And then discuss the main points of the story after reading: Why did the misunderstanding occur? How was this misunderstanding solved? (see Appendix B for the complete list of questions). This activity, as followed in the second pedagogical principle on listening, shows that social context largely affects listening behaviour. The reactions of listeners when they are baffled depend on the background and position of the speaker, the form of relationship between listeners and speakers, and the kind of environment within which the interaction transpires. Every good educator can observe when the students are perplexed, even though no one reacts or asks a question. But teachers can help children become focused listeners in different settings by teaching them how to tactfully ask particular questions that will clarify things that they have difficulties understanding. This is a listening skill that will greatly help then, not only all the way through their school life, but also throughout their life. Tasks for Speaking Skills For the speaking activity, the children will be asked to spend 5 minutes pondering about what their future job will be (e.g. politician, celebrity, doctor, lawyer, etc) and will be asked to act it out. Another alternative is to pair up children and they have to work together and act out one kind of job, such as two politicians, two celebrities, two doctors, etc. These tasks will improve the children’s capability in organising presentations, as been discussed in the third pedagogical principle. Another alternative to enhance speaking skills is asking the students to make a critique of at least two of the invented stories of their classmates; one they think is quite interesting, and one they think is quite boring. Alternately, the teacher can also require a third story that they think is of average quality. Another alternative is to require students to assess their own stories and to compare and contrast it to at least two of the stories of their classmates. The teacher can also develop criteria (see Appendix C) into this stories that will encourage students to pay attention. Then afterwards, the teacher will ask each child to reveal to the class the story they found the most interesting. These activities will build up the confidence of the children in speaking in front of a large audience. III. Conclusions There are numerous available opportunities for students to make use and employ their listening and speaking skills in all subject areas of the curriculum apart from literacy lessons. It is essential for students to be capable of making use of their skills decisively in all their life and learning situations. Being unambiguous about the learning goals in the area of curriculum and in listening and speaking will allow teachers to provide valuable support for students. It can be useful to examine the planning and ponder on any concerns with regard to listening and speaking for the students that the teacher is supporting. The teacher should be clear about the context-dependence of expressions that students have to understand and employ in their listening and speaking activities. The teacher could also take into account specific ways of articulating their insights, particular sentence constructions and expressions that they will come across in their life and learning situations. Appendix A The Tidy Drawer One Saturday morning Abby's Mum came upstairs to see Abby in her bedroom. Or tried to. There was so much mess on the floor she could only poke her head around the door. Abby sat in the middle of it all reading a book.      "What a tip," Mum said. "You need to have a clear up in here."      "Why?" Abby asked.      "Why?" Mum repeated. "Because things get broken or lost when they're all willy-nilly like this. Come on, have a tidy up now."      "But I'm very busy," Abby argued, "and it's boring on my own. Can't you help me?"      "No I can't, I'm busy too. But I'll give you extra pocket money if you do a good job."      When Mum came back later all the toys and clothes and books had disappeared.      "I'm impressed," said Mum. "But I'll inspect it properly later."      "It was easy," said Abby. "Can I have my extra pocket money now?"      "All right. Get it out of my change purse. It's in the kitchen tidy drawer."      In the kitchen Abby went over to the dresser and pulled open the tidy drawer. She hunted for the purse.      "Any luck?" Mum asked.      Abby shook her head.      "It must be lurking at the bottom," Mum said. "Let's have a proper look."      She pulled the drawer out and carried it over to the table. Abby kneeled up on a chair to look inside. There were lots of boring things like staplers and string but there were lots of interesting things as well.      "What's this?" Abby asked, holding up a plastic bottle full of red liquid. Mum laughed.      "Fake blood, from a Hallowe'en party years ago. Your Dad and I took you to that, dressed up as a baby vampire. You were really scary."      "I don't remember that."      Abby carried on looking through the drawer. She found some vampire teeth, white face paint, plastic witchy nails and hair gel. Mum pulled out a glittery hair band. It had springs with wobbly balls on the top that flashed disco colours. She put it on her head while she carried on looking through the drawer. Abby found some sparkly hair elastics to match the hair band. She made her Mum put lots of little bunches all over her head so she looked really silly.      "I remember this," Abby said as she pulled out a plastic bag. "This is from my pirate party." Inside there was a black, false moustache and some big gold earrings. < 2 >      She peeled the sticky backing off the false moustache and stuck it on Mum's top lip then found a paint brush in the drawer and painted a fierce red scar down her cheek using the fake blood. Mum clipped on the pirate earrings.      "Come here," Mum said and smeared white face paint all over Abby's face. She dribbled the fake blood so it looked as if it was coming out of Abby's eyes and mouth. She put gel all over Abby's hair and made it stand up into weird, pointy shapes. Abby put in the vampire teeth and slipped on the witchy fingers. She made scary noises at Wow-Wow the cat. He ignored her and carried on washing himself on the seat next to her.      "Wotch thish?" Abby asked, holding up a flat rubbery thing. It was hard to speak through the vampire teeth.      "It's a whoopee cushion," Mum said. "You blow it up and sit on it. It makes rude noises." She blew it up and gave it to Abby.      Suddenly there was a knock at the back door. A voice called out. "Hello, it's only me. I've let myself in."      It was their nosy neighbour, Mrs Hislop. She was always interfering and complaining.      Mrs Hislop entered the kitchen. Her mouth dropped open.      "We're jush wooking for the change pursh," Abby explained.      "Yes, well, er," Mrs Hislop said, "I just wanted a word about your fence. Some of it's blown down on my side."      At that moment Abby sat on the whoopee cushion and let out an enormous, rude noise. Wow-Wow jumped off his seat and ran away.      "Well!" said Mrs. Hislop and hurried from the room and out of the house.      When the door banged shut Abby and Mum burst out laughing until Mum's moustache hung on by a whisker and Abby's vampire teeth dropped out.      Abby came to sit on her Mum's knee.      "It's fun doing this together," she said.      "Maybe. But we still haven't found the change purse." They both looked at the enormous heap of things spread over the kitchen table.      "Well, you know things will get lost, or broken, when they're all willy nilly," Abby said.      "You cheeky monkey!" Mum laughed. "But what shall I do with it all?"      "I know, it's easy," Abby said and began to scoop everything off the table into her arms. She dumped it all back in the kitchen drawer. < 3 >      Mum looked at her suspiciously.      "Let's go and inspect your bedroom shall we."      Abby followed her upstairs and into her bedroom. Wow-Wow was sitting in front of her fish tank looking hungrily at the goldfish. He dashed under the bed when he saw Mum and Abby. Mum kneeled down and lifted the bed cover to get him out. Underneath were heaps of Abby's toys, books, tapes, clothes and shoes, empty plastic cups and wrappers and a half-eaten sandwich on a plate.      "Abby! What's all this?"      "It's my tidy drawer," Abby said. She wrapped her arms around her Mum and gave her a kiss. "Let's sort this one out together now." (McAuley, 2009, http://www.eastoftheweb.com/short-stories/UBooks/TidyDraw.shtml) Appendix B Questions for discussion: 1) Why did the misunderstanding occur? 2) How was this misunderstanding solved? 3) Do you keep your rooms clean or your things tidy? 4) Have you been offered a penny by your mother in the condition that you will clean your room or tidy up your things? 5) How did Abby show to her mother that it is not the money reward that she wants? 6) Did Abby’s mother ignore her? 7) What do you think was Abby’s opinion of her mother before she saw the tidy drawer of her mother? 8) What kind of mother do you think Abby’s mother is? 9) What do you think Abby might have meant when she said to her mother, “Let’s sort this one out together now”? 10) Is there anyone you know who reminds you of Abby and her mother? 11) What was your favourite part of the story? Why? Appendix C Criteria for judging the quality of an invented story: Check your corresponding ranking for each criterion. Criteria Ranking 1 (poor) 2 (boring) 3 (just OK) 4 (nice) 5 (wow, interesting!) The story is easy to understand. The story is short but clear. The characters in the story are realistic. References Brindley, G. (1998). Assessing listening abilities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , 171-191. Bygate, M. (2001). Speaking. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 14-20). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byram, M. (Ed.). (2001). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge. Cameron, D. (2003). Schooling spoken language: beyond communication. In New Perspectives on Spoken English in the Classroom (pp. 64-72). London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Carter, R. (2003). The grammar of talk: spoken English, grammar and the classroom. In New Perspectives on Spoken English in the Classroom (pp. 5-14). London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Corden, R. (2000). 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