How East-Asian Martial Films Have Influenced Hollywood Cinema - Literature review Example

?How East-Asian Martial Art Films Have Influenced Hollywood Cinema Introduction The Asian influence on Hollywood cinema has been apparent since the days where martial arts movies found their way into the Hollywood big screen. This influence has mostly been seen during the days of Bruce Lee through his crop of movies, and through other movies which have followed since. This paper shall discuss how East-Asian martial art films have influenced Hollywood cinema, and how these films have portrayed the Asian identity into the Hollywood scene. Body East Asian martial arts movies mostly originated from the Hong Kong movie genre known as Wuxia Pian (Michallet-Romero, 2003). This genre has been known to incorporate richly detailed choreographed action scenes with high-flying kicks and martial art techniques. When it was first seen in Asia, it was far-removed from the American film genre and style. However, it soon became a common feature in the Hong Kong film industry (Michallet-Romero, 2003). While trying to preserve the traditional stories of Chinese heroes, Hong Kong film directors translated martial arts techniques into film and in the process influenced the Hollywood film industry. The Wuxia tales in Chinese history were representations of male and female sword masters who represented much heroism in their actions (Garnet, 1999). These tales of heroism were developed in an era dominated by Confucianism and the teachings of this religion. Confucius was very much focused on loyalty, obedience, and on fulfilling one’s duty to one’s family. The father was considered the head of the household and as such total respect was owed him by the rest of the family (Morgan, 2001). Confucius also advocated the belief that those who were stronger must protect the weak, the aged, and those who were unable to defend themselves. Confucius also supported the ideal leader, ordering his warriors to live their lives with dignity and with valour. From these teachings grew wuxia literature. This literature was also enriched by the stories of the Buddhist religious leader Siddartha Gautama (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Buddha’s teachings incorporated philosophical beliefs to the wuxia tales and also advocated the idea of alleviating the sufferings of man. Physical disciplines were later associated with Buddhism and Confucianism and these movements were meant to enhance a person’s chi, which is considered to be the life force of all beings (Michallet-Romero, 2003). From these movements Kung Fu would soon evolve. The Wuxia tales presented the image of the hero – either male or female – as one who is able to wield a sword skilfully, travelling to distant lands and carrying out heroic deeds in defence of the powerless and the weak. These heroes were often known to travel alone, exemplifying their strong skills in martial arts and sword play (Desser, 2002). The relationship of master and student within these stories were also apparent. The wuxia tales also presented the virtues of justice, valour, and sacrifice for the greater good of the people. The protagonists were also usually of common lineage and with skill and training gained much prestige (Birrell, 1999). This protagonist was very much different from the protagonists portrayed in Western stories where the heroes were often of noble blood. Wuxia folklore eventually made its way into the common and the noble people of China and these stories were retold with slight changes in their characterizations, making them darker and flawed and somehow representing a danger to those who were weak. Due to these changes in their characterization, the heroes were often made to confront their dark side as well (Birrell, 1999). Eventually however, this wuxian hero would be able to redeem himself by favouring the original teachings of Buddhism and Confucianism, harnessing enough chi to make the ultimate sacrifice for the people. These wuxia tales became popular forms of literature in China and they became common themes among travelling groups of actors in China. When the Peking Opera was first established in 1790, these tales were also dramatically portrayed on stage (Michallet-Romero, 2003). When the communist party took over China however, the stories and literature were replaced by revolutionary stories and literature. The Wuxia tales were discouraged and heroism was no longer considered honourable. Films, songs, and literature were controlled by the Communist party and did not allow for the portrayal of artistic freedom in these art forms (Michallet-Romero, 2003). With censorship in these art forms became rampant in China, film makers and other artists finally decided to leave China and relocate to Hong Kong where they had more artistic freedom. Hong Kong was under British control and art and the social way of life were under the British government. The Chinese language was even banned at some point during their colonization (Yau, 2001). Artists and film makers found a more liberal and open arena for their talents and stories. The Hong Kong Wuxia film genre was revived by King Hu and Zhang Che in the 1960s, and the Shaw Brothers would soon follow (Teo, 1997). The actions of the mainland migrants soon started a period of transformation for Hong Kong films in terms of story lines and story development. The colonization also brought about much social instability among the migrants and also impacted on their collective consciousness and ethnicity (Teo, 1997). They started to assimilate Western culture and many young Chinese migrants turned their back on their traditional Chinese ways. They soon embraced the western culture. In an attempt to revive the traditional Chinese culture and literature, the writers and directors started to revive ancient wuxia literature (Teo, 1997). These stories were translated to modern styles with the modern film genre called Wuxia Pian. Wuxia literally means martial chivalry and Pian translates to film (Stokes and Hoover, 1999). Hong Kong Kung Fu movies already existed in Hong Kong before the Wuxia Pian was introduced, however these films focused more on quick Kung Fu style action sequences. When the revival started, these tales then took on a purist take on wuxia literature with tales of valiant heroes with various skills meant to protect the people. This wuxia hero was adept in hand to hand fights, as well as in sword plays (Michallet-Romero, 2003). These heroes also featured both genders, eliminating the gender bias in protagonists in this film genre. The Wuxia Pian evolved with the changing political times in Hong Kong and eventually, some of these stories took on a more comedic turn with the audience finding much humour in these films. The comedy here was mostly slapstick as was seen in the movie Drunken Master starred in by Jackie Chan in 1978 (Michallet-Romero, 2003). But the other qualities of the hero stayed the same – including their remarkable skills, selflessness, as well as honour and valour. This Wuxia Pian genre also made it possible for directors to express their views of British colonization, adding some of their opposition to the racist outlooks of the British against them (Yau, 2001). In its very core, these films stayed true to the wuxia themes of heroism. The angst aspects of the story development were also explored, allowing the hero to go through a major and dark dilemma in his personality. In the end, the heroes’ troubles were soon resolved towards the end of the movie through his self-sacrifice (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Even if the directors often conceived their characters in different ways, the elements of Wuxia Pian always seemed to emerge. As a result, the heroes’ characterization remained constant in the Hong Kong film industry with its skilled heroes who were defending the weak against the powerful (Yau, 2001). This film genre would inevitably find its way to America and the Hollywood film industry. Desser (2002) discusses that the first US-produced movie which was filmed in the wuxia genre was the movie Billy Jack which landed in theatres in 1972. It was produced by Tom Laughlin and it follows the story of the hero who travels and finds his way into a Native American reservation being discriminated by a white community (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Although the theme was very much based on wuxia ideals, the hero did not display any supernatural qualities. As a result, the martial arts fight scenes did not manifest any special effects. This story eventually however, opened the doors to the Wuxia Pian format in American film-making (Desser, 2002). This movie eventually made a strong connection with the young audience whose proclivities were towards rebelling against authorities. This movie found a strong audience which was eager to see more movies in similar themes. It was a major hit and soon found a wider arena for distribution. Wuxia Pian entered into the American pop culture sometime in the mid-1990s through the series Xena-Warrior Princess (Michallet-Romero, 2003). This series introduced Americans to a fast-paced show, one which combined elements of Greek mythology as well as choreographed fight scenes richly reflecting the wuxia themes. This show was lauded for its high drama as well as comic satires; moreover, its relation to the wuxia canons was strong (Michallet-Romero, 2003). One of the show’s producers expressed that he was leaning towards the wuxia canons in the show’s story lines. This producer also expressed how he was influenced by Hong Kong films and took many of his ideas from films like The Bride with White Hair, which starred Brigitte Lin Ching-Hsia and Once Upon a Time in China 2 which starred Jet Li (Michallet-Romero, 2003). The strong female character, as well as the villains and the choreographed stunts and fight scenes were all echoes of the Hong Kong film genre. The other producers of the show were also drawn in to watch Hong Kong movies and were able to evaluate how they could use this genre in their TV show. The very first episode of Xena-Warrior Princess was very much based on wuxia literature with the hero going through the angst and guilt for her actions in her past, and later finding redemption by saving a village (Michallet-Romero, 2003). This understanding of heroism is based on Buddha and his teachings, his valour and honour. The mentor-student theme of wuxia literature also came to life when Xena took on her travelling companion Gabrielle as her friend and ‘student’. Various episodes which echoed the wuxia theme were seen all throughout the six years when the series was playing (Michallet-Romero, 2003). The wuxia canon of self-sacrifice, valour, and honour were manifested in these episodes portraying the hero at some points as a flawed character, as well as a supernatural hero. In the process, by adopting the teachings of wuxia anthology, Xena also adapted the concepts of the alchemy of Taoism. Xena could seemingly fly through the air and survive deathly scenes as well as heal lethal blows and injuries with hardly any time passing (Michallet-Romero, 2003). These are part of the wuxia writings and part of the influence of Hong Kong film genre to American film making. This show became very popular among the American audience and its stunts, as well as its story lines served to propel this show to a wide demographic appeal (Medigovich, 2003). It was a show which showcased the wuxia genre and it was this type of literature which the producers and the show’s stars acknowledged as the foundation for its universal appeal. Moreover, it was iconic in its impact on film and television as it portrayed a strong female protagonist one who possessed the qualities which were often attributed to male heroes (Medigovich, 2003). Another widely popular TV show which had wuxia literature themes was Buffy, the Vampire Slayer by Joss Whedon (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Very much like the Xena show, Buffy, adapted wuxia-themed stories and featured a female protagonist with supernatural skills and abilities. Buffy is also very much a flawed character who has often been seen conflicted with her role as a hero, and yet, not hesitating to make the ultimate sacrifice to save the people especially those who were unable to defend themselves against the villainous vampires (Michallet-Romero, 2003). The evolution of this wuxia theme were however an inevitable necessity, especially one which has sought to accommodate an American audience. The incorporation of Buffy’s circle of friends to aid in her fight against evil is an addition which has ensured its wider acceptance among the younger and modern audience (South, 2003). The use of modern language and phrases also made the wuxia format more palatable to the American viewers. For all of Buffy’s success, none of these would have been possible without Xena: the Warrior Princess paving the way for the female protagonist (Michallet-Romero, 2003). The wuxia themes in American television shows would soon find their way into the Hollywood movie industry. Wuxia-themed plots and storylines were seen in various movies like The Matrix, X-Men, Charlie’s Angels, and Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Lara Croft embodied the wuxia protagonist, with her gallant nobility as well as her skills and the ability to emerge victoriously from seemingly impossible odds. Lara also portrayed qualities of self-sacrifice which helped her save the world. These are typical of the wuxia canons. In the movie Bulletproof Monk, the same themes of valour, honour and self-sacrifice are apparent in Chow Yun Fat’s character (Michallet-Romero, 2003). The relationship of mentor-student was also manifested in the story. With the use of skilful stunts, the movie was also able to present the alchemy of Taoist beliefs which presented how characters were seemingly able to fly through the air, displaying superhuman feats as they battled the evil forces. A shift in the story line for the movie Bulletproof Monk was however seen in terms of the combination of varying cultures. The protagonist is Tibetan and is in a quandary over which successor he would train; this dilemma is exacerbated by the fact that his successor may not come from his own ethnic background (Michallet-Romero, 2003). This story line presents a merging of cultures, one which declares how problems can be resolved through the coordination of opposing and diverse cultures and ethnic beliefs. In effect, as the movie follows the wuxia themes, it also presents new themes in relation to the possible conceptualization of merging cultures (Michallet-Romero, 2003). Martial arts has for a long while been the domain of the Hong Kong film making arena. No matter the themes or story lines involved, martial arts fight scenes are often interspersed into the movie (Moviezilla, 2011). The first major sign of this martial sign film making genre making its way into Hollywood is in the form of the legendary Bruce Lee. His movies the Big Boss and Fists of Fury were two of his movies which made it big in Hollywood, increasing the fascination of America in the martial arts genre and initializing an affinity for martial arts in the movies (Moviezilla, 2011). The movie audiences were enamoured with him and many Hollywood stars lined up to play opposite him. Hollywood attempted to create similar productions of its own, featuring similar martial arts themes, however their success in these movies was unremarkable. The oriental influence soon became encompassing and various film producers took advantage of this influence by making movies like Black Belt Jones, starring Jim Kelly (Moviezilla, 2011). Bruce Lee’s Enter the Dragon was also made, and it explored the same martial arts sequences; and even if Bruce Lee passed away before the movie could be completed, his legacy in Hollywood cinema was already firmly entrenched, soon paving the way for martial arts-themed movies. The 1980s ushered an era of continued interest in the martial arts-themed movies in Hollywood. Other forms of martial arts were also seen with the introduction of ninjas and karate. These years saw Sho Kosugi and Michael Dudikoff exemplifying skills in martial arts through their ninja abilities (Moviezilla, 2011). The movie Karate Kid also triggered a trend in Hollywood moviemaking which leaned towards martial arts-themed movies. Van Damme’s movies fell within this genre and Steven Segal also made his mark in this Asian-themed era of moviemaking. The producers however did not maximize the possibility of pouring their resources into expanding this genre (Moviezilla, 2011). Through the hard core fans of the Asian movie market, martial arts-themed movies were still supported and filmed, although many of these were not filmed in Hollywood. Worthy of note are the works of Jackie Chan which were brilliant masterpieces of martial arts movies which eventually went on to become major hits in Hollywood. In some regard however, Asian movies became significantly associated with Jackie Chan and the perception of the people about Asian movies were that they all had the same martial arts themes (Moviezilla, 2011). Not many people actually understood the Asian film media with its anime/manga themes and its other richer tones which could have been explored. Hollywood at this point was still ambivalent about the Asian martial arts themes. They did not even see the genre and themes as a threat to their ways of making movies. But directors and producers from the East were bent on revitalizing their movies and filmdom by exploring the traditional action, comedy, and even horror themes (Moviezilla, 2011). And still, Hollywood was only allowing the Asian influence minimal considerations, and not seriously evaluating it for its possibilities. The initial attempts of various Asian actors at breaking in to Hollywood were dismal at best. This was discovered by Jackie Chan with the poor showings of his movie The Big Brawl; his second attempt was an English dubbing of one of his police stories in 1993 was more encouraging (Moviezilla, 2011). It gave him an opening into Hollywood. This success soon grew with the release of his Rush Hour movie. The movies Hard Boiled, Once a Thief, and The Story of Ricky were R-rated action movies which gave a different take on Asian movies. Hard Boiled and Once a Thief were directed by John Woo and explored the crime themes in movie making (Moviezilla, 2011). The fascination and liberation in Asian movies were also seen in women protagonists who were often regarded in the same vein as men, posing similar threats to the life of the antagonists. Female protagonists like Cynthia Khan, Cynthia Rothrock, and Michelle Yeoh presented as imposing and skilled protagonists (Moviezilla, 2011). In the current context, the influence of Asian movies has been firmly entrenched in the Hollywood filmmaking industry. John Woo has directed his various movies in Asia and Quentin Tarantino’s Kill Bill sealed the deal. The viewers and the producers were now very much considering the Asian market and its themes as important contributors to the filmmaking industry (Moviezilla, 2011). The success of these movies also saw a wave of Asian-themed movies into the Hollywood film scene with the remake of Karate Kid. Moreover, epics like Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and Hero ushered in a crop of martial arts-themed movies which became instant hits in the US. These Asian and martial arts-themed movies are now considered in the Hollywood A list. The fact that the era of globalization has also ushered in an age of close interactions with other cultures and other countries has made the power of Asian movies even more universal (Steinberg, 2011). Moreover, the martial arts action sequences have always been universal in their appeal because they cross language barriers. There is no need to understand a foreign language to understand a martial-arts film and therein lies the strong appeal of these movies. Due to the current marketability of martial arts-themed movies, studios have lined up bigger budgets and better scripts, even more accomplished actors and directors for these films (Steinberg, 2011). Names of A-list stars have now been attached to these projects. Ryan Gosling has been undergoing training in Muay Thai in preparation for his role in Only God Forgives which tells of a story about gangsters in Bangkok. Leonardo DiCaprio has also been involved in a planned series of movies based on the novel Satori which chronicles the life of a martial-arts assassin. Keanu Reeves has also been training for the movie 47 Ronin, a Japanese martial arts epic, and is set to make his directorial debut through the movie Man of Tai Chi (Steinberg, 2011). Russell Crowe is also set to star in The Man with the Iron Fists with Lucy Liu. It is a kung fu epic movie which is set to combine classic Kung Fu and Hollywood storytelling (Steinberg, 2011). Elements of martial arts fighting have also been seen in various Hollywood movies including Sherlock Holmes; and these same elements will soon be seen in the next Batman movie with the villain Tom Hardy playing a mixed martial arts fighter and with Anne Hathaway gaining martial arts skills to play Catwoman. The fitness obsession which has also long plagued Hollywood has served as the ideal reason for many stars adopting martial arts as part of their fitness routine and skill build-up. Evan Rachel Wood has been known to participate in tae kwon do and Taylor Lautner regularly trains in karate. Robert Downey has also been involved in kung fu training as a means of kicking his drug habit (Steinberg, 2011). These Hollywood actors and celebrities have all been introduced to the East Asian martial arts influence and to some extent have found enough credibility in it in order to assimilate it into their craft and into their lives. In discussing East Asian martial arts, Bruce Lee’s role in bringing this art form to Hollywood’s attention cannot be downplayed. He provided the bridge between these two cultures and just as his own personal world inhabited both Western and Eastern elements, he allowed such dual identity to translate in his art and his films (Steinberg, 2011). In the process he became one of the most successful martial arts actors in the world. He also had a universal appeal which made him popular with his fellow Asians as well as his American and Latino cousins. His death in 1973 led to a slew of predecessors wanting to fill in the significant gap that he left in Asia-American cinema, but no actor ever came close to the success he was able to gain. Actors such as Van Damme and Segal did not have as much universal appeal as they were using their martial arts skills to fight crime (Steinberg, 2011). Nevertheless, the martial arts influence was already apparent in various Hollywood movies with the wider acceptance of Jackie Chan and his movies, as well as Jet Li and other Asian martial arts talents. Kung fu talents also made their way to America with the Matrix series. In order to ensure the authenticity of the action sequences, the Wachowski brothers hired the Hong Kong director Yuen Woo-Ping in order to coordinate the fight sequences (Steinberg, 2011). Various elements of these fight scenes have therefore long been present in Hong Kong martial arts films. The movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon also hit major strides in the Hollywood cinema as it was able to attract Academy Award recognition (United China Vision, 2000). This movie featured fighters up tree tops and roof tops, even climbing up walls fighting with the assistance of swords and other martial arts weapons which successfully portrayed the skill and the expertise of the actors playing the roles (United China Vision, 2000). This movie introduced Hollywood into the epic martial arts movies, one which depicted martial arts in a wider and a visually appealing back drop of a richly developed story line. This movie transcended the crime fighting martial arts hero or the amusing drunken martial arts fighter. It portrayed strong protagonists from both genders fighting for honour, for valour, for tradition, and for love. These themes certainly translated well to the American cinema which recognized the impact of this movie in its annals. A discussion by Jenkins (2008) established that training in martial arts leads to various benefits; mostly it helps solidify the body thereby making the tasks of striking and kicking more powerful and accurate. It is also a discipline which provides peace of mind, and teaches self-control in every situation. Among film makers it also gives the power to protagonists to leap across chasms and defeat a hundred men all at the same time (Jenkins, 2008). Some of these portrayals of martial arts are highly inaccurate, with stereotypes being bandied about carelessly. Hence images of multi-coloured ninjas have found themselves into film; and yet these depictions are inaccurate (Jenkins, 2008). Real ninjas actually served in Japanese houses and covert in their activities and appearances. They often spied upon their targets without having to use costumes, and when they kill someone they did not have to use swords or similar weapons; instead they would use subtle approaches which may take the form of poisonous drinks (Jenkins, 2008). These cliches have major gaps in them in terms of accurate portrayals of martial arts. And yet these cliches still continue to influence the depictions of Asians in film. The effect of martial arts in the American culture cannot be ignored, and yet, more often than not, such effects are downplayed. Still, martial arts has entrenched itself deeply into Hollywood and the evidence can be seen through our films, TV shows, and our theatre (Shin, 2008). In the traditional sense, about forty years ago, Americans did not see martial arts and action in the same page. American-style fighting was seen in terms of hitting one’s opponent with one’s fist until they would be slumped on the ground; it was also seen in gunning them down or simply stabbing or blowing them up. When martial arts in films were introduced to American cinema, they changed the American way of fighting (Shin, 2008). The fluidity of movements in martial arts also introduced the American audience to how artful martial arts can be with its coordinated movements and beautiful symmetry. Moreover, it provided a more aesthetic means of fighting, certainly one which translated well into the cinema. In the early 1970s, kung fu hit its stride in the American cultural scene with the commoditization of kung fu in various areas of the Hollywood scene. Bruce Lee represented the ideal image for kung fu in films and he also evolved into an image for social justice (Shin, 2008). He was also a symbol which largely represented the nationalist movement against imperialist powers. The image of kung fu in film and TV also took the form of Kwai Chang Caine who was a half Chinese and half American monk wandering the West (Shin, 2008). He was played by David Carradine who portrayed the image of a pacifist fighter to Bruce Lee’s swaggering figure. Despite their opposing portrayals of kung fu, they actually coexisted well with each other and well accepted among the American audience (Shin, 2008). The kung fu series of Kwai Chang Caine also portrayed a new hero, one which did not use any guns and who lived by his personal standards. And yet he was able to defend himself well. This image was very much in contrast to the conceptualization of the Hollywood hero – the one which usually wore a gun, cowboy hat and boots (Castillo, 2005). Caine was also a biracial hero and this made him more appealing to the American audience, and as compared to the purely Asian roots of the kung fu fighting heroes, Caine presented a more racially acceptable alternative. Caine’s character did not go through racial prejudices before gaining acceptance among the American public; racial prejudices which Bruce Lee went through during his initial years in the filmmaking industry. Whatever gains which Caine was able to enjoy were all paved by Bruce Lee and this simply became his legacy in American and Asian film making. Conclusion The above discussion presented the influence of East Asian martial arts to Hollywood filmmaking. This influence as manifested above is vast and is initially seen through the works of Bruce Lee. The wuxia literature also impacted on the Hollywood genre of film-making and inclusions of the wuxia protagonist has been seen in American TV shows and films. The martial arts has impacted on how fight scenes are played out on American films, allowing for the graceful and fluid movements of martial arts to be portrayed in various films and TV shows. In the process, Hollywood has become enriched by the gifts of East Asian martial arts. References Birrell, A. (1999). Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Maryland: John Hopkins University. Castillo, G. (2005). Gender, identity and influence: Hong Kong martial arts films. University of North Texas. Retrieved 18 January 2012 from http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3354/m1/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf Desser, D. (2002). The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Garnet, J. (1999). The History of Chinese Civilization. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. Jenkins, G. (2008). Martial Arts in The Movies: American culture will never be the same. Best Martial Arts Institute. Retrieved 18 January 2012 from http://bmai.org/pdf/blackBeltPapers/grantJenkinsBlackBeltPaper.pdf Medigovich, L. (2003) Lucy Lawless. Lesbian News, 28(6). Morgan, D. (2001). The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion. New York: St. Martin's Press. Steinberg, D. (2011). Hollywood's New Kick. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 17 January 2012 from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203699404577042221902298202.html Michallet-Romero, C. (2003). The origin of the Hong Kong martial arts movie genres and its influence on the American television and movie industry. Retrieved 18 January 2012 from http://whoosh.org/issue84/romero1.html Moviezilla. (2011). Silent takeover: The day Hollywood stood still. Retrieved 17 January 2012 from http://www.moviezilla.org/content/view/4/8/ Shin, M. (2008). Yellow Hollywood: Asian martial arts in US global cinema. University of Southern California. Retrieved 18 January 2012 from http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/assetserver/controller/item/etd-Shin-20080721.pdf South, J. (2003). Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Philosophy. Chicago: Open Court Publishing. Stokes, L. and Hoover, M. (1999). City on Fire: Hong Kong Cinema. London: Verso Books. Teo, S. (1997). Hong Kong Cinema, The Extra Dimensions. London: St. Edmundsbury Press. United China Vision. (2000). Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: A Portrait of the Ang Lee Film. United China Vision Inc. and UCV, LLC., Yau, E. (2001). At Full Speed: Hong Kong Cinema in a Borderless World. Minn: University of Minnesota Press. Read More