Understanding the External World and Commercialization of Culture - Essay Example

? Ideologies Aimed at Understanding the External World How the Interaction with Physical Objects and Human Relationships help in the Construction of Meaning about the Nature of the External World By Name Subject Professor School Date of Submission Introduction The interpretation of the external world hinges on the clear understanding of reality and perception. From a philosophical standpoint, knowledge starts with the experience of the external world through the senses—from the smelling of a fruit or the hearing of a child’s laughter. It is through the sense-data obtained (the scent of the fruit or the laughter of the child) that man is able to know the things around him. Knowledge, in this sense, is formed when man mentally creates judgments about his experiences (the smell of the fruit is sweet or the laughter of the child is loud). The problem between reality and perception stemmed from simple yet essential questions: (1) is the knowledge obtained through sense-experience true? How can man assure himself that what he perceives to be real is aligned with what is actually real? According to a philosopher named Bertrand Russell, reality exists—an objective space where all objective objects are orderly situated. Man is able to obtain knowledge about these objects, firstly, through the experience provided by his senses; and secondly, through the judgment created by his mind on such experience. The mental concept that is constructed is thus called perception. In this light, Russell deemed that man cannot exactly grasp reality since his senses do not possess the facets that would allow for him to capture these objects completely and purely. Essentially, however, man’s inquiry toward the external world reinforces an interesting insight about his nature—the desire to know. Indeed, Littlejohn (1995) opines it is in the creation of meaning that man is able to know about the external world, about other men, and ultimately about himself. In this paper, we first take a look at two general worldviews that identifies the essences of the external world being studied, and the agent studying it. Then, we study the general ways in which man is able to engage with the external world through his contact with physical objects and with other men. Ultimately, this paper seeks to elucidate on the nature of man’s meaning creation. Two General Worldviews about the External World As mentioned previously, man’s ultimate goal is to understand the nature of the external world not only by acquiring truths about it, but also by evaluating the mental and physical processes he employs. In this sense, we begin by examining the two contrasting practices of knowledge creation that are geared toward explaining the nature of the external world: objective empiricism and hermeneutic empiricism. Both worldviews provide philosophical and scientific studies about the external world. A. Objective Empiricism Objective empiricism assumes that various phenomena in the external world are naturally configured to be perceptually accessible but autonomous of perceptions of man. Since the objective characteristics of these phenomena are independent of mental judgments, reality is thus delivered completely and purely to the perceiving man. Empiricism of this sort is often regarded to be grounded on materialism—that which advances the appreciation of physical objects as the premier exemplar of the real, as Anderson (1996) states. As posited by objective empiricism, as man moves the focus of his inquiries away from the nature of physical objects and into the cognitive construction of meaning, he loses the ability to empirically validate the judgments he made since the physical objects are absent from his analysis. Aside from being directly linked to materialism, objective empiricism is also associated with reductionism, which further breaks down the nature of physical objects into one single field of knowledge. Through this, Anderson (1996) believes that reductionism becomes the basis for the unity-of-science hypothesis. This hypothesis underscores the assertion that all fields of science share common methods of achieving reliable observation and producing valid judgments so that both the observation and the claim are both easily transferrable. What reductionism highlights is the belief that there exists a unity within the external world since all phenomena have the same foundations. For example, when a person writes about something, say, a paper about communication theories, the thought process is said to a combination of the energy states within his mind. The nature of this combination is said to be the same when printing an actual letter since there is an interaction between the collected particles of carbon. Lastly, objective empiricism is also related with determinism which expresses that all real phenomena reside in casual chains, with each phenomenon being a consequent of some prior phenomenon and the agent of some subsequent one. Through determinism, objective empiricism is able to negate ideas like chance, fate, or free choice. In summary, it is said that “a material, independent, determined, and unified world of phenomena provides the axiomatic support for the image of objective science progressing through increasingly perfected approximations of the invariant conditions that govern this world” (Anderson, 1996, p. 16). B. Hermeneutic Empiricism Hermeneutic empiricism assumes an external world that is composed of multiple domains of phenomena with no common foundation. With this, humans are deemed to be: (1) the first of all material entities within the external world; (2) the living organisms which provide the principles of animation and sentience; and (3) the creators and inhabitants of the realm of meanings. Since the primary tenets of hermeneutic empiricism contradict those of objective empiricism, this theory directly supports the cognitive construction of meaning through various fields such as psychology and chemistry since it is only through the development of the theoretical findings from these fields that truths are more authentically discovered. Thus, for hermeneutic empiricism, there is no unity of science. In relation to this, hermeneutic empiricism is connected with ‘downward causation’. In this regard, in the order of the material, biological, and semiotic domains, the material must precede in time the biological and semiotic, and the biological must precede the semiotic, but the semiotic is the basis for understanding both the material and the biological. Therefore, unlike objective empiricism that puts premium on the capacity of physical objects to direct the mind on the formation of true knowledge, hermeneutic empiricism underscores the power of the mind the create meaning. Therefore, it is in the domain of meaning creation (happening in semiotics) where the essence of physical objects primarily depends on. Thus, hermeneutic empiricism emphasizes not only on the physical objects being contemplated on, but also on the contemplator himself. At this point, it is necessary to highlight that the major difference between the two worldviews bank on each ideology’s view of: (1) the external world and (2) the thinking man. As for objective empiricism, it is the nature of the physical objects that guides the man in his construction of knowledge about the world. On the other hand, as for hermeneutic empiricism, it is man’s capacity to create meanings that the physical objects are ‘given’ their nature. In order to provide proper context to these ideologies, we now move on to the discussion of the general manner in which man interact with physical objects and with other men in the external world. Manner of Engagement with the External World Whatever the nature of the external world is, an independent question arises as to manner of man’s engagement with the external world. In this light, three issues are brought out: (1) the nature of the physical object or other men; (2) the way through which man acquires knowledge about them; and (3) the role of language in the creation of meaning. In answering these issues, four general types of contemporary empiricism are created. 1. Traditional Empiricism This type of contemporary empiricism posits that all men have similar quality of intelligence and they are able to engage with the external world in the same manner. Through good observation and right reasoning, men are able to crate meaning about the external world. Within this perspective, “man’s engagement with the external world is regarded to be a process of isomorphic transduction, or the exact reproduction from one field to another, in which normal sensations are the recognizable foundation of perceptions and normal perceptions are true (Anderson, 1996, p. 48). 2. Perceptual Empiricism This type of contemporary empiricism opines that human intelligence will always be in the forefront of meaning creation, and that men are able to engage with the external world and with other men in the same way. However, it reiterates the fact that humans must still be trained against biases in order to pave the way for an accurate representation of the external world. 3. Constructive Empiricism This opines that human intelligence is dependent on the accomplishments of other men, and therefore all acquired intelligence is biased. Furthermore, the external world is more than just a summation of all physical objects because the events that happen within it can be grasped in various ways. Therefore, man’s engagements in the external world and the meanings he created about them are partially dependent on the cultural memberships. 4. Post-modern Empiricism Building on the constructive empiricism, this type highlights that not only is the external world greater than its material foundations and its phenomena, its facets are also beyond the grasp of human understanding. Thus, post-modern empiricism believes that errors in meaning creation are unknowable. Conclusion Through the discussions made, it can be said that although there are different ways in which the nature of the external world can be viewed, as well as the manner through which man engages in it, there is the need for man to believe on the capacity of his mind to construct meanings about the world. It is only in this level that the true meanings are developed and built on. List of References Anderson, J. A., 1996. Communication Theory Epistemological Foundations. New York: Guilford Press. Littlejohn, S. W., 1995. Theories of Human Communication. U.S.A: Wadsworth. Commercialization of Culture and Emergence of Cults in Popular Culture Understanding how the Changes in Media Content Affect the People’s view of Culture and of the External World By Name Subject Professor School Date of Submission Introduction The Industrial Revolution brought into modern culture the concept of rapid production and consumption of goods and services. And as modern culture grows and expands; and as new forms of mass media develop, consumerism continually grows with it. Historically, consumerism is deemed to be one of the fruits of the Enlightenment Movement. As the people shifted their understanding of human happiness from a spiritual to a physical point-of-view due to their weakened perceptions toward Christian dogmas, the search for exact sciences soon developed. Its primary approach of measuring its object of study in quantifiable terms was entirely different from the known method of philosophy, which banked on the introspective examination of an experienced phenomenon. Indeed, the concept of real was tightly linked with the concept of quantifiable. The overarching concept of quantification as a tool toward accessing specific truths led to the further enhancements of various scientific fields like biology, chemistry, and psychology. Soon, it influenced the fields of economics and business, leading to a more concrete definition of human development—that which is connected with global economic growth and commercially-driven societies. With this, it is claimed that in the modern mass society where the valuation of oneself is often linked to how aligned the self identity is with society’s conception of lifestyle and values, most people struggle to formulate and communicate their self identity. It is in their hope to create a strong and unique image of themselves that most people ‘purchase’ the right types of consumer goods and ‘befriend’ the right types of people in order to adopt the right type of lifestyle that exhibits their self identity. Thus, the car they drive, the clothes they wear, and the type of house they live in all tell the world ‘who they are’. Therefore, modern culture now reinforces the idea that the more material goods people acquire, the better off they are. Since having more symbolizes being better, there is never enough, and the society of production and consumption continues to develop. In this paper, we intend to examine specific events in the commercialization of culture and in the emergence of cults in popular culture that shape the general belief and behavior of people in modern mass society. To enrich our discussions, we study each event with the aid of specific ideological frameworks. In the end, we aim to shed light on the nature of meaning creation not only in the way cultural messages are formed, but more importantly on how they are communicated. Commercialization of Culture One key facet of a commercialized culture is the creation of product images—the enrichment of the understanding of commercial goods from mere products of consumption to concrete representations of one’s personality and values. As Campbell (1998) opines, the meanings symbolized by these material goods are disseminated to the masses through media, with its messaging packaged strategically by certain advertising practices. In this light, advertising is not just about how these material goods are sold, but more importantly “on the way these products are portrayed on television, in motion pictures, in popular songs, on record-album covers and in special-interest magazines” (Wilson, 1992, p. 39). All of these promotional executions play a vital role in the transmission of meaning about the products (what they stand for) and in the generation of desire for them. Wilson (1992) further illustrates the role of media in transmitting product images in his discussion of the roller-coaster successes and failures of the hat industry in the United States. According to him, hats were a significant element in men’s and women’s wearing apparel in the new mass society. Until the 1940s, for example, well-groomed men wore a hat whenever they went outdoors. Then, few Hollywood celebrities appeared in their respective movies without hats. This severely affected the hat industry as people started copying the new hatless style. However, it is the massive advertisement of caps in movies that assisted the hat industry’s comeback in the late 1970s. Building on the fundamental role of meaning creation in the selling of material goods, an entire profession called product brokerage has been developed in order to address the need of portraying consumer goods favorably in the entertainment business. In this regard, product brokers work with the production design team—people responsible for acquiring props for movies and television shows—to encourage them to use certain products in their shows. In formal advertising language, this technique is called product placement. The effectiveness of product placement in boosting the sales of material goods is best seen in the case of Reese’s Piece—how the candy was used in the movie E.T. in order to cement a friendship between the extraterrestrial creature and the young boy, Elliott. Wilson (1992) further notes that with the promotional help from Hershey, sales of Reese’s increased by 70% the month after the film was released, and within two months the candy was being sold at the refreshment counters of 800 theaters. At this point, it is crucial to highlight the power of communication in elevating the reality of a certain physical object, which in this context, is that of a material good. Indeed, understanding the activities involved in the assigning of the right symbols to represent the product in the advertisement material (symbols come in the form of the endorser of product, or the general look and feel of the material as expressed in the right combination of colors, sound, and copy) is essential in grasping the nature of meaning creation. Although the principles of copy writing and art direction cannot be discussed in detail in this paper, it is interesting to see how people can construct a unique kind of perception about a material good that is based not just on its physical attributes, but more importantly on the emotional benefits that are communicated to them through advertising messages. From the point of view of constructive empiricism, the transmission of these emotional benefits forms part of the overall meaning or context of the material good—its entire material value hinges on the kind of image it can provide to its user: does the product make the user look hip or trendy, or does it help solicit respect from his colleagues? In summary, it can be said that the biggest task in the game of product meaning creation rests on the advertising person himself. He needs to take note of how the members of the target member see themselves and the culture they belong in. It is only in coming up with memorable and realistic consumer insights that the advertising person can come up with an effective product meaning worthy of sales. Cults in Popular Culture Cult, in the context of modern culture, is defined as the excessive devotion or dedication to a certain idea, person, or thing. As Wilson (1992) further explains, many cults are regarded to be interrelated with mass media—some develop as a result of media attention given to the certain idea, person or thing while others are catered to by specialized media publications to help perpetuate the interest in the cult. The next parts of this paper will list down some of the notable cults in popular culture and give concise analysis for each. 1. Rock Fans A cult developed around the popular music industry focuses on the great devotion toward rock fans. In the eyes of the rock icons’ fans, they cannot do anything wrong and they possess the marks of a true and gifted artist. For example, Elvis Presley became the subject of a cover photo on the June 1990 issue of the Life magazine over a decade after his death. With many of his fans still worshipping him, Elvis is still able to sell magazines. 2. Movie-TV Buffs A certain cult following was formed around the Star Wars series, with fans who have practically memorized every scene and dialogue in each of its movies. Another cult is created for the TV series called Star Trek with members calling themselves as ‘Trekkies’. Each year, the ‘Trekkies’, dressed up in their Star Trek costumes, gather at conventions to interact with other members. 3. Gang Members Inner-city gangs, as Wilson assesses, provide another sub-cultural identification for individuals attempting to establish their own identities in mass society. With the help of mass media covering the lives of these gang members, the glamour of this cult is perpetuated. These gangs usually reflect ethnic and territorial identities and they do whatever it takes to preserve and nourish their identities, even through a gang war. In these examples of cult following, it is essential to underscore, in a more general sense, the need of people to belong in a certain group where they can freely express their self identity. From the perspective of meaning creation, self identity is constructed and affirmed by the group where the person belongs. To understand the nature of meaning creation in cult following, it is important for an outsider to actively participate in unique activities done by the members, however bizarre they may be. It is only through a unique experience of an activity that the person is able to know and evaluate the cult List of References Campbell, R., 1998. Media and Culture. An Introduction to Mass Communication. New York: St. Martins. Wilson, J., 1996. Mass Media/Mass Culture: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill. Read More