Donald Arthur Don Norman's View on Human-Computer Interaction - Literature review Example

SIGCHI Conference Proceedings Format 1st Author Name Affiliation Address e-mail address Optional phone number 2nd Author Name Affiliation Address e-mail address Optional phone number 3rd Author Name Affiliation Address e-mail address Optional phone number ABSTRACT Donald Arthur "Don" Norman is one of the renowned scholars in the field of Human computer interaction, particularly the interaction of humans with designed world. He is an intellectual in cognitive science, design, as well as usability engineering whose works have had a huge impact on the field of Human computer interaction. This article features an extensive critical review of Prof. Donald Norman and his scholarly works altogether. The article features a brief autobiography of Donald Norman, a critical review of some of his outstanding topics in relation to the field of HCI and a review of sampled books from his wide range of publications. Author Keywords Human Computer Interface, Designed World, Computer Systems Design, Affordance, Interaction, Interface, Interrelation, Usability, Functionability. INTRODUCTION Human computer interaction (HCI) entails the study, design, planning, as well as uses of interactions between humans (users) and computers (11, 13). It is one field that brings together computer science, design, behavioral sciences and other scholarly fields. Among the key scholars and researchers that have played a major role in the development of HCI is Donald Arthur "Don" Norman. Don Norman is an exceptional scholar who studies the interaction of real people with design (9). He explores the gap between what designers proposes, plans, or intends with what regular persons actually want. The works of Don Norman have resulted to a wide range of classic publications like the book by the title, ‘The Design of Everyday Things’. This article is based on a critical review of Prof. Donald Norman and his scholarly works. A Brief Overview of Рrоf. Donald Norman’s Life and His Works Born on 25th December 1935, Don Norman attained a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science or EECS in 1957 (14). He also earned a Masters in Science in EECS and a Mathematical Psychology PHD. Following his graduation, Don Norman also pursued a postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard University’s Center for Cognitive Studies. In this regard, Donald Arthur Norman is a scholar in cognitive science, design, as well as usability engineering (9). Don Norman can be best described as a modern life anthropologist, who studies the way human beings interact with their designed world. Apart from a minor bad reputation about being a petulant critic, his works have also been described as being insightful and generous. Don Norman’s mission is to ensure that the gap that stands between products/human creations and their users is closed (14). Norman is known to have authored a series of books and other publications on design and the manner, in which human beings interact or relate with it. A good example of well known books that have been authored by Professor Donald Norman is the ‘Design of Everyday Things’, a classic book that has been a topic of discussion in the academic circles. Other influential books under the authorship of Norman include ‘Emotional Design’ and ‘The Design of Future Things’ among others (14). According to (10), Don Norman is a voyeur, who is always on the lookout, always scrutinizing the ordinary daily occurrences that may be taken for granted by other human beings. Norman has been named by the Business Week as being among ‘the most influential designers in the world’, based on the influence that comes from his essays, books, lectures, courses, consulting, and students (4). This is an author that takes extraordinary pleasure in people’s interaction with technology. According to his teaching, one is supposed to develop the observation skill, particularly that involving paying attention to the things that may seem obvious. Don Norman urges observers of the obvious to question it and this will result to them discovering a lot of hidden insights. As he notes, what may seem obvious in most of the cases is not (3). Currently a fellow in a wide range of organizations, Norman has served in different organizations and in different capacities. He has served as startup’s President and VP at Apple Computer. On top of his education background, Norman has been awarded honorary degrees from Technical University Delft in Netherlands as well as University of Padua in Italy. He has also won an award in Computer and Cognitive Science, as a Benjamin Franklin Medal. Norman is also an esteemed member of the National Academy of Engineering (9). Though he has been considerably criticized based on some of his argument, Norman has impacted the world in a unique way, particularly through his works and his students too. Through these, Norman’s philosophy of human-centered design has been in different areas across the globe. For instance, one of the books that were published not long ago courtesy of him is ‘Living with Complexity’. This is a book that argues that complexity/intricacy is essential. The book argues that our tasks must be watched by our tools. People are wrong when they cry out for minimalism and simplicity, people desire understanding. This is very different from simplicity; actually the most confusing things are the simple ones (10). John Tierney of the New York Times have described Donald Norman as a rare talent of gizmos since the publication of ‘The Design of Everyday Things’, his critique in 1988 on VCRs that no person could program, doors that could not be opened devoid of instructions, and other technologies that appeared to have been designed so as to drive human beings crazy (10). A Critical Review of Outstanding Topics from Prof. Donald Norman Scholarly Publications, Particularly in Relation to HCI Human inaccuracy and computer systems design Humans are prone to error. Humans are not precision equipments that are designed for precision. Humans are an entirely different type of devices. Flexibility, adaptability, as well as creativity are sources of human strengths. Nonetheless, continual alertness, alongside accuracy in memory or action is their weaknesses. Humans are amazingly tolerant to error, even when physically damaged (7). They are tremendously robust, flexible, and creative at finding meanings and explanations from noisy and partial evidence. Nonetheless, similar properties that cause creativity, as well as, robustness also lead to errors. Computers and humans have diverse diametrically opposing abilities. With an excellent interface, computers and humans should bring forth a system, which is greater that all of the computer parts. There is a shared responsibility between people and computers, each taking part in the areas that befits their responsibilities. The computer improves human’s cognitive, as well as perceptual strengths, in addition to counteracting their weaknesses. Humans have the responsibility for things the computer cannot perform (7). Designing concurrently for both computer, alongside human abilities needs compromise, in addition to trade offs. Unfortunately, system design concessions are often designed at the expense of human since people are brilliant at become accustomed to suboptimal circumstances, while computers are rigid and the degradation of their performance is not graceful. Donald Norman however laments that several advances have been made in the human understanding of the software, alongside hardware of systems that process information. Nonetheless, one most essential gap remains; the insertion of human operator into the analysis of the system (7). How a system that process information behaves does not depend on the design specifications, rather it depends on the human and system interaction. Properties of the components of the system, including the humans and their interactions, are among the things that a designer must put into consideration. The various field technical publications prove to a concern with hardware, alongside software, but prominence on human capability, together with functionability is absent. Regularly, information system failures are linked with human error but not the design. Continued failure will be expected unless the approach is changed. Donald claims that amongst the things that should be changed is the attitude. Human error is as predictable as system noise, possibly more so for that reason, instead of putting blame on the person who was involved, it would be preferable to try to discover the features of the system that caused the occurrence, and the to amend the design. This would either put an end to the occurrence, or reduce the impact for potential occurrences. One key step would be to eliminate the use of the term “human error” and to re-evaluate the need to blame individuals. The other key step would be developing specifications for designs that put into consideration the human functionability with the same level of care given to system. Nonetheless, as Donald emphasizes on elimination of the term “human error” and developing of design specifications that consider the functionability of humans as first key steps, other literatures consider other steps as initial key steps. For instance, Nigel Eames considers training and help as initial key steps toward elimination of human error. Humans who use computers require training, alongside help to comprehend their changing role in an organization, alongside the changing framework in which they work, appreciate task domain concepts, computer domain concepts, in addition to being aware of the computer syntax needed to complete the interface. Documentation, training and help should also match the manner in which individuals actually learn system applications in the real experience (2). Mack and Carroll have done adequate research on the way humans learn multifaceted materials in a practical setting. Even though their subjects learned a word processor based on old text in the system, their observation on the manner in which individuals learn can still be applied today. More particularly, humans are vigorous learners who teach themselves through trying things instead of only reading, developing, alongside testing theory regarding the reasons the system operates in the manner in which it does. They then apply this knowledge of their work, as well as, experience acquired before in interpreting their experiences (2). They believe that individuals acquire knowledge through thinking, doing, alongside knowing. The observations of these researchers give reasons of success of vigorous exploration via good tutorials, as well as, through simplified, forgive interfaces, training and interface systems that promote excellent conceptual models, alongside suitable reference documentation, which assists individuals to answer particular questions. Every day things Norman emphasises on the essentiality to design on the bases that surround the user’s need, as well as the values of cognitive psychology. However, the foremost matter that comes up around what is revealed by Norman is based on relevance. Norman puts down some examples of what he refers to as everyday things (3). These examples include books, paper clips, zippers, and so on. He describes them as simple. He then moves on further to more complex things, which he described as a sequence of simple objects. May be Norman never considered computers as everyday things. Norman connects simple objects with everyday things. Nonetheless, the computer is not a simple object such as a soap dish. Nonetheless, it can be argued that the computer user interface is a series of simplistic parts: desktop, icons, mouse, web pages, browser, and so forth. Well, as Norman advocates for user experience design for everyday things, some literatures argue that consumers are not, inactive soldiers that relive prefabricated experiences (3). Rather, they vigorously finish the experience for themselves, alongside turning them into directions, which are completely unintended (3). They make aware the actuality that a lot of HCI advances neglect or even underplay the function of the individual experiences, which users have in the interaction with the technology of information. The user’s role always comes in front and centre but in an unusual way. In some approaches, the user is the vigorous central character of the experience, which selects, as well as, connects the interaction system dots, thus, making the experience felt and alive (3). They bring awareness of the fact that most approaches in HCI neglect the functions of the individual users have in the technological interaction. The key difference from Norman’s philosophies of interface design is that designs that are user-centered try to optimize the interaction around how individuals can, need, or want to work; the behavior of a user is not predictable or logical all the time, as according to what Norman believes. Additionally, Norman does not have the capability to adapt since he clashes with other concepts. This is because he excludes the social characteristic of it in regards to convection in intellectual and practice procedure (3). For instance, looking at the idea brought out by Norman, in the event that the user faces usability issues, the user blames him or herself (2). Nonetheless, other sources indicate that while digital immigrants put the blame on themselves in the event that they face issues with usability, digital natives put the blame on technology. They set the bar high and try sophisticated functionability online. In the event that the functionability does not work as predetermined, they have minimal patience since applications, alongside sites are supposed to work. Affordance Affordance refers to a characteristic of an object, which allows individuals to understand how it is utilized. For instance, a mouse button calls for pushing that leads to clicking just by how it is physically designed in its shell (5). In another simple term, afford means to give a hint. When the physical object’s affordances are perceptually obvious it becomes extremely easy to comprehend how to interrelate with it. The perceptual psychologist Gibson James coined this concept. Donald Norman later introduced it to the community of HCI in 1988. Nonetheless, ambiguity surrounds Norman’s use of this concept. Norman describes affordance as the aspect of design of an object that suggests how it should be utilized; a visual hint to its function, as well as utilization. Norman refers affordance as the perceived, alongside actual characteristics of the object, primarily the fundamental properties, which determine the manner in which the object should be utilized (5). Affordances give strong hints to the objects operation. When one takes advantage of affordance, he or she knows just what to do by looking and does not require instructions, labels or pictures. Affordance is therefore a thing of both perceived, as well as, actual properties. For instance, the affordance of a ball is both its physical material, round shape, its ability to bounce and so forth (actual properties), and the perceived proposition of how the ball should be utilized (perceived properties). A combination of actual, alongside perceived properties brings forth affordance as the relationship, which holds between the person that is acting on the object and the object itself. Nonetheless, Gibson gives a different view of affordance. He defines affordance as an action likelihood that the environment avails to an individual, independent of the ability of the individual to perceive this likelihood. Unlike the inclusion of the perceived properties of an object by Norman, or in other words, the information, which specifies the way the object can be utilized, the affordance by Gibson is independent of the abilities of the actor to perceive it (5). A perception that is direct implies that the information in the sensory receptors is adequate to perceive anything. Any other high-level cognitive procedure to mediate between the sensory experience and perception is not required. Gibson further emphasizes that affordance exists in relation to the activity capabilities of individual actors. Therefore, for instance the affordance of an open window to a thief is to climb through, but it is not so to a child that is not tall enough thus does not have the possibility of the action Principles of interaction The principles of interaction are intended to enhance the eminence of interface design. Norman describes mapping as one of the principles of design. He refers mapping as the relationship that exists between controls, as well as their effect. Almost all artifacts require some kind of mapping between effects and controls, be it a car, a cockpit or a flashlight (1). A brilliant example of mapping between effects and control is the arrows that indicate up and down that are utilized in the representation of the cursor movement of up and down on a computer. Other literature describe mapping as that, which should organize the user interface purposefully, in useful, as well as meaningful ways depending on clarity of consistent models, which are recognizable and apparent to users, putting together related things in addition to separating things that are not related, differentiating things that are not similar together with resembling similar things. This principle is more concern with the general user interface architecture. Visibility is another principle of interaction. Value is attached to a user interface only when the user interaction obtains their purpose. The foremost constituent of user interaction is what the user views in the interface. Thus, visibility is about the clarity seen by the user in the interface state, alongside all the possible activities. Therefore, if users were unable to see how the interface can be used, the visibility principle would not be adhered to (2). According to Norman, the more the visible functions, the more possibly users can comprehend what to do next. Nonetheless, when functions are not visible it is more difficult to find, as well as to use them. However, other literature argues out that the design should make all the required materials, as well as options for a particular task visible without distracting the user with redundant and extraneous information. Excellent designs do not overwhelm users with alternatives or confuse them with unnecessary information. Feedback is another principle. Norman describes it as the sending back of information regarding the action taken and the accomplishments made, allowing the individual to move on with the action. There are several types of feedbacks available for designs for interaction. They include; audio, verbal, tactile, as well as combination of all these (1). According to other literature, users should be kept well informed by the design, conversant of interpretations, as well as actions, conditions or changes of state, and exceptions or errors, which are pertinent, and of user interest through concise, clear, and unambiguous language that is known to the user. Consistency is also a principle of interaction. It refers to interfaces of designing that lead to similar operations, as well as utilise equivalent elements for obtaining equivalent tasks. A consistent interface follows rules, for instance utilizing similar operations to choose all objects. For instance, an operation that is consisted is utilizing similar input action to underscore interface graphical objects, for instance, clicking the mouse all the time. Inconsistent interfaces allow exceptions to a principle. Constraints, in the language of principles of interaction refer to the concept of design that determines methods of restricting the user interaction that can occur at a particular time. This can be achieved in various ways. Automobile in HCI future The modern automobile is a wonder of computation since there is a lot of automatic stuff that controls the engine. Nonetheless, more and more of this stuff influence the driver. Anti-skid braking, automatic transmission, controls for stability, lane control, and cruise control are some brilliant examples of automobile automation. Norman once argued that the present condition if aviation automation was unsound since it was in the middle (4). Have either full automation or no automation. Norman claims that what is there at present is half automation. Automobiles have presented a multifaceted interactive system. Electrical systems, alongside mechanical controls are changed into digital realm. A vehicle is operated by a driver, while concurrently interacting with several devices, as well as applications. Driving and at the same time texting is a brilliant example that are of value addition to the driver, while at the same time elevating driving risks (4). Novel technologies of interaction create several opportunities for coming up with attractive and essential in-car utilization interfaces. With technologies, which aid the user in operating an automobile, including cruise control, as well as, lane keeping, the user interface is of extreme importance to the manner in which humans perceive the experience of driving. Novel means for user interface interaction and development design are needed as the amount of aspects affecting the automotive user interface design space is increasing. Relative to other areas, the trial and error advance while the product is in the market is unacceptable since the cost of failure is fatal, though not necessarily. The automotive design for user interface is pertinent in many domains ranging from assisted driving, to elementary driving control, to information services, to navigation, games and entertainment. Engineers, who are ignorant, are handling the present designs for automation. They are ignorant of the lessons that have been learnt from automation studies (4). New industries are ignorant to learn lessons from older ones. Therefore, this field is in frantic need for assistance, though not realizing it. This field presents new lessons, in addition to old lessons that should be taught again. Thus, unless the HCI scientists get involved, serious consequences should be expected along the way. In 2003, this area was referred to as the next revolution by a panel in the international conference on HCI (4). However, HCI scientists are not being consulted in the making of engineering decisions. Sure, there are a lot of activities in the research labs, but the question of who makes the product decision still remains. The past error can be repeated once again if this continues. Nonetheless bringing on HCI scientist is not enough. According to other literature, special interest groups should seek to unite developers, researchers, students as well as practitioners who are concerned with creating, envisioning, alongside implementing automotive user interface (6). Such kind of a session would avail a forum to talk about problems, in addition to ideas regarding the topic. Through this, there is hope for enlarging the comprehension of emerging space for design of designs for automotive interaction, as well as, user interfaces. The targeted aim would be to bring forth a society that is interested in the automotive user interfaces domain (6). A Critical Review of some Renowned Books by Donald Norman The Design of Everyday Things This book is a bestselling book by Norman Donald, as well as. Originally, it was published in 1988 as “The Psychology of Everyday Things”. It emphasizes on individuals, and how they interrelate with physical objects (12). Has anyone ever stood in front of a door, clueless of how it is opened? Is it possible for someone to try to add a friend to his or her contacts on the phone, taking a considerable amount of time to eventually find out, as well as blame him or herself for being clumsy? This is now the time to read a book that is about product design in the framework of user experience (12). In this book, Norman looks at the elementary principles of design via human interactions with everyday things. These things include telephones, doors, power switches, light, and so forth. Norman claims that user inaccuracy is a product of bad design. True, a lot of content in Norman’s book is somewhat dated. Nonetheless, Norman’s underlying principles of design are up-to-date relevant, as well as, applicable to current day design. According to Norman, there may be rapid changes in technology, but persons change gradually. The examples, principles, as well as, the lessons of everyday things design are brought forth by understanding persons. They stay true eternally (12). A few fun examples include remote controls used at home is a fashionable fantasy among technologists. They muse, since one cal make a call home while driving and turn on the air or heat conditioning, or would it not be fun if everyone had a small screens that are portable? It was interesting to see how design has evolved over the years making someone feel like a time traveler (12). Nonetheless, overall it can be argued that Donald wrote an extremely amusing, alongside useful guidebook for the comprehension of elementary product user-centric design. This is a book that should be read by every designer and it is highly recommended for a product designer. The Design of Future Things Like its predecessor, this book disabuses anyone of the notion that a book that is written about engineering has to be dull. The delightful humor by Norman, inviting prose, as well as, topic choices , alongside examples are guaranteed to bring some connections with any person who has driven a car before, searched for treasures that are hidden in a refrigerator, or used a microwave oven. Norman opens on a discussion about “ Cautious Cars and Cantankerous Kitchens,” giving readers a glance into the close future when the safety features of a car will commandeer steering wheels and smart refrigerators will scream high-pitched warnings about cheese omelets, and bacon if a member of the household has a problem of cholesterol (4). Norman appreciates the value in some aspects. However, he writes that the so called intelligent systems have turned into being too smug. They require to be socialized, require enhancing the manner in which they communicate, as well as, interact, alongside recognizing their constraints. It is only at this time they become truly useful. This is more so true in the invention of machine failure or when command is taken unexpectedly by the machine. Norman mentions a situation where an adaptive cruise control system, a system that adjusts the speed of the car to traffic density tromped on the gas when the driver exited a crowded highway onto empty off-ramp (4). Similar mechanisms that are of enormous essentiality when things are working well can diminish safety, comfort, and accuracy when unexpected circumstances arise. Fortunately, designers of technologies for the future are conversant with these matters and try to look forward to them. Nevertheless, how can they foresee every glitch in the machine, as well as every situation that can come up at the time of its use? Emotional Design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things While Dorman Norman argues for the dominance of functionality above other consideration, he on the other hand declares, in his book Emotional Design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things that emotional part of design may be more vital to the success of a product than its practical elements. His basic thesis in this book is that eye-catching products work/operate in a better manner. Norman asserts that products that are designed in a beautiful manner make the users or the people using them to feel good, influencing them to b in an open frame of mind of creativity to try and solve problems that they might be facing (9). As suggested by Norman in this particular publication, design falls into three basic levels. ‘Visceral’ level is the first and it embodies the sensory aspects regarding how things feel, look, sound and smell. Visceral design elicits abrupt and influential responses that are subconscious and involuntary. As a result, products that are viscerally well-designed tend to stir up positive sentiments and feelings on consumers. ‘Behavioral’ level is the second and through this, users form their discernments regarding a given product through using them. Here, Norman makes a suggestion that good behavioral design ought to be an elementary part in a design process right from the start. Thirdly, ‘reflective’ level refers to the level whereby the products have meanings for the consumers. It is associated with how a consumer maintains an inherent sense of identity through a product’s consumption for some time. Through marketing, the reflective design aspects are incorporated in a product (9). Even if Norman’s work is great in regard to provision of a combined theory featuring product design based on the three main levels, it can be argued that the plead of addressing the emotions of customers is not actually new in the marketing field. The reflective design notion, stating that objects in the lives of people are more than sheer material belongings can also not be said to be new in marketing. A wide range of scholars on consumer behaviors had long documented the concept of ‘we are what we own’ long before Norman did it (8). Nonetheless, the overlying point made by Norman is well understood in the sense that reflective design turns to be important in a cutthroat marketplace whereby there are scarce chances for differentiation on functionality. In the book, Norman proceeds to give a wide range of examples on practice of design and the examples include; Diesel clothing stores, Alessi tea strainer, Swatch watches, and headsets of National Football League coaches. These examples firmly demonstrate the design principles proposed by Norman in the book. Nonetheless, a single obvious omission within the book, particularly in the chapters is evident in the book. Despite the fact that Norman talking about the design features of incremental innovations, terming them as enhancers, he fails to give an elaboration on the challenges faced in the design of radical innovations (9). Conclusion Based on this article, it is clear that Donald Arthur "Don" Norman is one of the well known scholar in relation to the field of Human Computer Interaction, particularly due to his collection of scholarly publications on how humans relate to the designed world. Through the review of some outstanding topics in his academic and research work, it is clear that this is a scholar with an exceptional way of thinking and reasoning and he surely manages to go beyond what many people may think as just ordinary. While his works have made major contributions in the field of human computer interaction among other fields, his works not only features some discoveries that had been made by other writers before but also leaves some unaddressed gaps as pointed out in some of his books. However, it is clear that this is one researcher who has clearly has made key contributions not only in the field of HCI but also in other academic disciplines and whose impact has been felt largely through his publications, lecturers, concepts, and students among others. REFERENCES 1. Kisačanin, B., Pavlović, V. & Huang, T. (2005). Real-time vision for human-computer interaction. New York: Springer Science. 2. Masoodian, M., Jones, S. & Rogers, B. (2004). Computer human interaction : 6th Asia Pacific conference, APCHI 2004, Rotorua, New Zealand, June 29-July 2, 2004 : proceedings. Berlin New York: Springer. 3. Norman, D. (2007). The psychology of everyday things. New York: Basic Books. 4. Norman, D. A. (2007). The Design of Future Things. New York: Basic Books. (November, 2007.) 5. Rome, E., Hertzberg, J. & Dorffner, G. (2008). Towards affordance-based robot control international seminar, Dagstuhl Castle, Germany, June 5-9, 2006 : revised papers. Berlin New York: Springer. 6. Schmidt, A., Dey, A., Seder, T., Juhlin, O.,( 2009). Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, 2009. http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=1620509 7. Sears, A. & Jacko, J. (2008). The human-computer interaction handbook fundamentals, evolving technologies, and emerging applications. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 8. Belk, R.W. (1998). Possessions and the Extended Self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 139-68. 9. Norman, D. (2004). Emotional Design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York, Basic Books. 10. Norman, D. A. (2010). Living with complexity. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. 11. Monk, A. (1993). Improving your human-computer interface: A practical technique. Hemel Hempstead, Herts: Prentice Hall International. 12. Norman, D. A. (2002). The design of everyday things. New York: Basic Books. 13. Guo, P. (2014). Clarifying Human- Computer Interaction. Communications Of The ACM, 57(2), 10-11. 14. Zachry, M. (2005). An Interview with Donald A. Norman. Technical Communication Quarterly, 14(4), 469-487. Read More