Origins of Modern Computing - Assignment Example

? Computer Architecture al Affiliation) Question Whenever there are discussions regarding computer architectures and the manner in which computer systems and computers are developed, organized and implemented, the von Neumann architecture is mentioned as a yardstick for comparison. The reason for this is that almost every electronic computer that has ever been developed has been based on this architecture (Aspray, 1990). The von Neumann architecture is named after John von Neumann, a pioneering mathematician and scholar who first published a paper putting forth what was required from any electronic computer meant for general use. In his 1946 paper authored with Hermann H. Goldstine and Arthur W. Burks, and titled "Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument,” von Neumann provided an elaborate explanation and plan concerning the physical layout of a basic computer and how it should operate. The ideas and explanations in the paper were to have a massive influence on virtually every subsequent design and development of computers (Aspray, 1990). His pioneering design ultimately led to the building (in 1952) of the EDVAC computer. According to Aspray (1990), the von Neumann architecture is what has always been used in the computer world whenever computers are being designed, and it is what most people are used to anyway. It is considered to be a groundbreaking innovation that laid one of the strongest foundations in the design, organization and development of electronic computers. In the "Preliminary Discussion" section of his paper, von Neumann states that a computer should have 4 main "organs." These “organs” can be categorized as connected to memory, connection to human input, control and arithmetic; they are otherwise known as the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit, input-output devices and the memory unit. von Neumann considered the ability to store orders, or instructions, that resulted in computation, as well as the results of this computation, as the core elements of a computer. As a result, more attention was to be paid to these elements. It is important to note that von Neumann defined every one of the four components he saw as integral to the development of general purpose computers, and therefore made it easy for subsequent developments to be made (Aspray, 1990). Question 2 As one of the two main buses in a computer, the system bus plays a crucial role in ensuring that a computer functions normally and commands are executed as required. The system bus is a network formed by the linking of the different sections in a computer; these are the system memory, the CPU and other components that are located on the motherboard. The main function of the system bus is to enhance modularity and reduce production costs all at the same time (Appleman, 2000). For example, earlier computers were bulky and were considered them too expensive for regular people who wanted to own a computer. The primary reason behind this was that companies found it hard to fit all the components of a computer into the motherboard, and therefore had to use more materials in order to create enough space to house all of them. Thus, a combination of poor ergonomics and high production costs meant that it was inevitable that the final product would be huge and prices would be prohibitive. However, with the invention and increasing use of the system bus, it was possible to make smaller computers that performed just as well as (if not better than) the earlier versions. In addition to this, there was a lot of expectation from customers that prices would be lowered and modulation between memory, cost and input-output devices would be enhanced (Appleman, 2000). Over time, the system bus has been refined and improved on, leading to even smaller computers and eventually the development of laptop computers that incorporate sleeker and more sophisticated system buses. Question 3 Due to the fact that computers run in binary (using zeros (0s) and ones (1s) only), it is possible to express computer logic in terms of Boolean operators (Appleman, 2011). For instance, true statements are supposed to return values of 1, while false statements are supposed to return values of 0. As a matter of fact, a majority of calculations call for much more than simple true or false statements, and therefore computer execute complex mathematical calculations by combining multiple Boolean (or binary) statements or operators together. Boolean expressions, operators and statements that are considered complex can expressed in terms of what are referred to as logic gates, which are often expressed in series. Through the use of logical terms, Boolean operators allow computer users to communicate with the mathematical operations of a computer (Appleman, 2011). The universal computer language makes extensive use of Boolean operators; by integrating it into its core element it enables the execution of multiple computer calculations that in turn allow us to perform a wide range of tasks using our computers. Boolean operators are made up of the following: a) x AND y – the AND operator returns true when x and y are both true, and false when either of them are false (Appleman, 2011). b) NOT x – The NOT operator returns true when x is false (null) and false when x is true (Appleman, 2011). c) x XOR y - returns true when either x or y is true, and false when x and y are all true or all false (Appleman, 2011). d) x OR y - returns true when either x or y, or both of them are true, and false only when both x and y are false (Appleman, 2011). Question 4 Primary Storage/Computer Memory According to Price (2011), computer memory typically consists of random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM). RAM is responsible for the temporary storage of data so that it can be quickly accessed by the CPU. Information stored in the RAM is often loaded from hard disks, and consists of data related to specific applications and the operating system. When the computer is switched off, all the information stored in RAM is lost; only when the computer is running can the data remain stored. Anytime the RAM is full (or close to full) the computer tends to operate slowly and the information can be retrieved randomly. There are generally two types of RAM; these are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). Whenever several applications are running simultaneously, virtual memory enables the system to search the RAM for memory slots that have not been used lately and replicate the hard drive. This creates RAM space and allows the computer to run multiple programs (Price, 2011). In contrast to RAM, ROM is always active whether the computer is on or off; it is both permanent and non-volatile. As indicated by its name (“read only”), its contents cannot be modified or changed. The data it holds is pre-programmed and is so important that without it the computer cannot function normally. Secondary Storage/ Flash Memory These consist of hard drives and portable storage devices. Hard drives are normally built into the CPU. Their storage capacity commonly ranges from 40 GB to 640 GB, and depending on the type and amount of data that should be stored and retrieved, one may settle on any capacity within that range (Price, 2011). Flash memory or portable storage devices are usually non-volatile, and they are developed with the primary intention of enabling portable data storage and providing a convenient way of transferring data between different computers (Appleman, 2000). Data can be deleted and modified depending on a user’s needs. USB flash drives, CDs, DVDs and memory cards are some examples of flash memory/portable storage devices. References Appleman, D. (2000). How computer programming works. Emeryville, CA: APress. Aspray, W. (1990). John von Neumann and the origins of modern computing. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Price, M. (2011). Computer basics (8th ed.). 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