Information System Theories - Coursework Example

? Information System Theories By Introduction Information Systems is somewhat a new discipline. Most researchers in this field, therefore, have done their foundation studies in other disciplines. Such disciplines range from physics, mathematics, chemistry, sociology and psychology. It is, therefore, normal for these researchers to import views from their previous areas of expertise. These views may touch on knowledge, nature of theory and epistemology (Gregory and Dennis, 2005, p.3). This paper looks to explore the fact that Information System theories come from other disciplines. The field of Information System is dependent on knowledge and information concerning a world made up of physical systems, designed artifacts and human behavior (Gregory and Dennis, 2005, p.3). However, it is essential to ensure that only relevant knowledge is theorized, and in an integrated manner. Ideas may be retrieved from diverse disciplines; however this has to be done with an aim of focusing on the nature of information system and its uniqueness. A theory, according to Merriam-Webster (2004), can be said to be a hypothesis that is developed for the sake of an investigation. A discipline, on the other hand, may be referred to as a branch of learning or institution. This, however, does not mean that the disciplines are confined to only their areas of study. This supposition therefore means that Information Systems is by nature “single”. This, however, is not the case as Information System is regarded as “pluralistic” field. This is because it draws its knowledge from other, different and more reputable disciplines. Some form of control should be established in each field to avoid cases where there’s no agreed upon area of teaching, practice or research. Such a case would result in incoherence and, low status for the discipline. A balance should be established to avoid total control or general incoherence of the discipline. Scoping Information System Applications in IT are now revolutionizing the way in which firms conduct their daily operations. Such changes have allowed researchers to contribute significantly towards helping the organizations to embrace thes changes. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) states that, the advances and changes in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) are revolutionizing economic activities just like electricity, steam engine or the railways in the past (OECD, 2001). The progress made in computer technologies has today led to the rise of diverse areas of application. This has, therefore, contributed to an increase in the role of IS while expanding its scope. This makes ICT technologies present in numerous and diverse areas such as governments, health sector, etc. According to Avison and Fitzgerald (2003, p. xi), information systems are “… the effective design, delivery, use and impact of information technology in the organizations and society”. This definition touches on one of the significant aspects of IS, that is the creation of IT applications. It also identifies the fact that a broader attention rather than just technology applies in ICT applications. IS discipline has moved from it technology centered focus to other areas that include management, technology, social and organization. Information System is not entirely about technology nor is it a management field like put by Webster and Watson (2002). Information system is distinguishable from these disciplines due to the incorporation of artifacts in machine-human systems. According to Lee: “Research in the information systems field examines more than just the technological system, or just the social system, or even the two side by side; in addition, it investigates the phenomena that emerge when the two interact.” (2001, p. iii) This, therefore, goes to show that information system is the discipline that combines the knowledge of humans with that of physical objects. One can draw relations between Information System and other disciplines such as architecture. Architecture deals with design and as such, incorporates both artifacts and humans. Applied disciplines such as medicine are used to develop products used on people. Information systems require an assortment of knowledge from the natural sciences. Foundations of IS Information System is an applied science discipline that is concerned with technology impact and use. Researchers in this discipline come from different parts of the world. In this way, they apply the methods, theories and research techniques from their previous disciplines to Information Systems. This started out with social sciences and management on one side while computer science was on the other side. There were diverse theories formulated from different reference disciplines that included political science, computer science, economics, mathematics, statistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology, and linguistics as well as ethics. ICT is rapidly growing, and so are the applications. In this light, information system teaching, research and practice are characterized by diversity, dynamic and flexibility development. One of the greatest strengths of Information System discipline is in its capacity to facilitate research into ICT applications that are revolutionizing the economy of the globe. However, this discipline also possesses a weakness since it focuses on diverse phenomena. In this way, the discipline may seem to lack a central focus. Benbasat and Zmud (2003) explore this problem in their paper. According to their paper, the research community of Information Systems is advancing an identity crisis. This is primarily because they under-investigate information System core issues while over-investigating the non-core subjects. They proceed with the idea that there are limits from the research community on the extent of Information system field. They also go ahead to place boundaries on the multidisciplinary aspect of Information system while at the same time acknowledging the fact that the field of Information System is multidisciplinary. In their paper, they continue to dispute the practice of adapting and loaning theories used in other disciplines to elaborate phenomena used in Information System. Instead, they propose that the Information System research community should focus on innovative and unique inputs. From their point of view, the focus would be beneficial. However, the Information System research community has widely disputed this view. Despite the fact that they raise contentious issues, Benbasat and Zmud’s (2003) point should not be taken lightly. Information System researchers should be careful to maintain a distinct IS focus despite of the availability of research opportunities that exist out there. Therefore with this in mind the discipline in Information system can be said to be highly developed. The application of these other disciplines can be evidenced in many different areas. For instance, economic theories may be used in project management to justify the cost of a software development process to the management of an organization; in order to assess a system’s impact on its users, it may be necessary to apply psychology theories; to assess a system’s impact on society and the organization one may require to apply sociology theories; semiotics may be applied to ensure that people and computers are able to communicate effectively through the use of signs and it is essential to apply computer science in order to develop efficient and effective software. The downside to this whole setup is the fact that there are too many theories to apply in developing application. Therefore, there are inconsistencies that arise due to clashing or opposing theories. Borrowed Theories Social Exchange Theory This theory was borrowed from sociology, psychology and economics. This theory was developed in order to understand the behavior of man in economic ventures. It exists in numerous forms that employ a central focus, the exchange of resources by actors through a social exchange relationship. In this case, social exchange is the transfer of resources voluntarily between different actors. Studies developed, of late, have identified the need for employing social exchange theory in works related to Information systems. According to Tiwana and Bush (2000), a prototype that employs social exchange theory is now in the markets. This prototype allows for the exchange of information throughout implicit communities. Stallaert and Whinston (2001, pp.230-231) introduce a discussion that proposes a research for designing an Information System that employs the use of gift economies and social exchange. They go on to critique the notion of the “knowledge market” (pp.232-233). In their conclusion, they propose that economic results should be considered while devising knowledge management applications. This will ensure that knowledge is efficiently and effectively shared, regardless of the difficulty involved in coming up with the proper mix to facilitate that work. Bock and Kim (2002) conducted a study on 467 employees from four different organizations. In the research, they hoped to identify factors that determined knowledge sharing behavior. Their study model was partially centered on the fundamentals of social exchange theory. From their results, they discovered that the employs were hugely motivated by their positive approach towards sharing of knowledge rather than an expectation of a reward. The interest in factors that influence the sharing of knowledge can also been seen among the members of the open source community. This community refers to persons who develop software and make it accessible to the general public. Classic exchange theory dictates that software of the open source kind should not exist at all (Lerner & Tirole, 2001, p.3). Researchers wishing to study the open source community and its activities should consider anthropology for some explanations. For example, what drives accomplished programmers to share their skills with no expectation of a reward? Bergquist and Ljunberg (2001) in their paper point out the significance of gift economies to the open source community in facilitating relationship building, openness and knowledge sharing. This consequently leads to innovations in the field of Information Systems. Social network theory This theory originates from the sociology discipline. Social relationships, according to this theory, are represented as ties and nodes. The nodes act as a representation of the actors found in a network while the ties represent the existence of relationships involving the actors. However, when applied to information systems it somewhat differs from its use in sociological studies. In sociology, it is assumed that the power of a social network stems from the attributes of the actors. In Information System, the attributes are not as significant as the relationships that exist between the actors in the network. It is a common scenario in the past to approach research in Information Systems by focusing on the technical aspects of a technology. Brey (1997) proposes that researchers rely on the controversies, difficulties and disagreements that occurred between the actors involved in a technological change instead of the technological logic. He continues to propose the adoption of social constructivism in researchers. This is whereby the researchers will not need to revisit claims made by others in regard to a technology that is being studied. He cautions that in order to employ this approach technological change should not be explained by such claims. Instead, technological change should be explained by negotiations and controversies that occurred between the diverse groups involved in the change. Complexity Theory The complexity theory originated from mathematics and computer science disciplines. This theory is concerned with the resources needed to compute in order to solve a problem. In this case, the resources include are space (memory) and time. Other minor resources may include the number of processors needed to solve a problem. This theory is applied to the discipline of Information Science especially in developing software applications. It is crucial to develop applications that are fast and consume less memory. Finding a way that balances the two resources is extremely crucial. The time complexity is concerned with the number of steps required to solve a problem in comparison to the input of the problem by using an algorithm. The number of logical steps used to solve the problem is dependent on the language being used or the machine solving the problem. When it comes to applications, their development process is complex. This complexity is amplified by the continued changes in the user requirements and business needs. According to research, if the system complexities are not properly managed, the system is likely to fail (Benbya and Bill, 2006, p. 12). Complexity theory centers on the notion that interaction between agents results in order (Benbya and Bill, 2006, p. 16). An agent, in this case, refers to partly independent entities, for example, atoms, processes, groups, industries and so on. General systems theory This theory was borrowed from different disciplines such as mathematics, cybernetics and philosophy. This theory was projected in the year 1936 by a biologist known as Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1962). It was later developed by Ross Ashby (Ashby, 1976). Bertalanffy was against the reductionism when he attempted to have a unity of science revived. His emphasis was that the real systems can interact in different environments and can acquire new forms of properties through their materialization and, as a result, evolution continues (Bertalanffy, 1962). However, instead of the entity being reduced to certain forms of properties, the system theory directs its focus on the relations that exist between the divisions that connect them. This form of arrangement usually determines if the system will be independent of elements of concrete substance. Therefore, with a similar concept such as this, which underlies in diverse disciplines, a basis of unification is provided. The concepts of a system in this case include; information, hierarchy, the boundary of system environment and goal directedness among others (Bertalanffy, 1962). An excellent example of interaction of multiple elements envisioned by GST is the information system. Chaos theory This theory was borrowed from physics and mathematics. This theory relates to the dynamical systems which exhibit erratic behavior despite the fact that the system may have its limitations and has no random variables. The Chaotic systems are usually noted because of their initial conditions which usually result to numerous but diverse outcomes. Chaos can be classified as a counter to the idea of complete determinism, where every activity gives an inevitable result of events that are following with absolute certainty. Applying the principle where there are no real measurements, the chaotic systems have outcomes which are unpredictable due to the original conditions that cannot be specified with vast accuracy. Additionally, the initial conditions that exist in dynamic systems increase at exponential rates. This is a form of sensitivity to an initial condition which is referred to as chaos in the disciplines of physics and mathematics. These systems are known to be deterministic and have limits that do not contract or expand, because they have the tendency of orbiting around attractors. An excellent example of how the chaos theory applies practically is through different, identical sets of conditions which result to different outcomes. Organizational behaviors are complex and, therefore, affect the designing and implementation of information systems applications. It is also quite possible that, in using Information system applications, an organization may be affected in unpredictable ways (Orlikowski & Hoffman, 1997), hence, the need for models and metaphors used in chaos theory to be applied in the studying of information systems. Such models and metaphors provide a platform that allows for interpretive approaches in the field of information systems (McBride, 2005, p.234). In this way, one is able to identify patterns that facilitate in managing complex situations. Such models, however, cannot provide effect and cause explanations of phenomena in the field of information systems. Instead, they provide a researcher with a route to navigate certain situations (McBride, 2005, p.234). Chaos and complexity can be manifested in systems due to constant changes in the environment or even new conditions. Due to limitations in the human mind, such complexity and chaos may not be predicted or explained fully (McBride, 2005, p.235). Beeson and Davis (2000) were able to apply chaos theory to identify complexity concepts in information systems and organizational change. They were then able to apply this knowledge while implementing a fingerprint identification application. Merali (2004) made use of concepts from chaos theory to illustrate network phenomena. Such studies are enough evidence of the applicability of chaos theory to situations whose effect and cause relationships cannot be fully explained (McBride, 2005, p.237). Complex interactions that exist between technology and different actors, development of changes in an organization and implementation of strategies are some of the reasons why the discipline of information systems may require some explanation from the chaos theory (McBride, 2005, p.237). Game theory: The game theory can be defined as a division of applied mathematics that identifies when the costs and advantages of each optimal behavior are not fixed. It is dependent on choices made by other individuals. It also studies how incentive structures are formalized unlike the decision theory. It can also be said to contain all the decisions which are made in an environment where numerous players interrelate. Game theory is applicable in different fields such as political science, economics and in military strategies. The predicted behavior and optimal strategies of people is usually studied by game theorists. There are different situations where the incentive structures may be similar, therefore, showing an exemplified game structure. Game theory has also been applied in the field of Information Systems, in developing logic. In order to model interactive calculations, researchers have made use of games. Game theory has also been applied to the internet in the creation of algorithms that are able to find equilibrium in peer-to-peer systems, markets, games, security, computational auctions, etc. Game theory has also been used as a choice to model decisions on IT investment (Butterfield and Norman, 2001, p.73). Theory of Competitive Strategy The theory of competitive strategy was borrowed from strategic management and economics. According To Michael Porter’s five forces (1979), the concepts are developed in the micro-economics so as to derive the five forces which are determinants of a competitive market. These are the forces which are close to the firm and can affect the way it serves its customers or how it earns its profits. When the forces are changed, a firm is required to make its market re-assessment. Among these five forces are the four forces which constitute the supplier’s bargaining power, threat of new entrants in the market, customer bargaining power and threat of substitute products. When they are combined with the other variable, the fifth force is influenced to create certain levels of competition in an industry. This is only one part of the Porter’s strategic system of analysis. There are other strategic sets or elements which comprise of the market positioning strategies, the value chain, cost leadership generic strategies and market positions that are access based among others. Through analysis, these questions can be answered, thus, opening up an avenue for strategic thinking. Consequently, this opens up potential for the role of information system. With competition growing rapidly in the market, information system applications are being considered as one of the strategic sources (Rackoff, Charles and Walter, 1985). Businesses and organizations are choosing to employ such applications as they are able to gain a competitive advantage. Social-technical theory Social-technical theory originates from various disciplines including human relations, systems theory, management and sociology. In mid 20th century, there were optimistic predictions of the effect that technology had on businesses and their productivity. Different examples of technology were introduced for the implementation of errors that linked to resistance from the work force and when the expected benefits failed to come through. Researchers with a background in Anthropology and behavioral sciences came with the idea that there was the need to create a link between the social subsystem and the technical sub-system. The technical subsystem consists of tools and techniques which are required so that the inputs and outputs are transformed in a way that the firm’s economic system is improved. The social system consists of employees’ values, needs and attitudes applied at work and the authority and rewards systems. However, the authorities had the definitions broadened which consisted of suppliers and customers who govern the society. The foundation of this approach was based on the researchers’ way of designing their goals of joint optimization in the subsystems. Thus, the organizational systems are most likely to increase the performance on conditions that the performance of the subsystem was clearly recognized. Thus, designs have to have an impact of different subsystems where the aim is directed at achieving high quality. There are various authorities who have outlined techniques in which the socio-technical principles are applied and implemented. When there are two different sets of values that are conflicting, the socio-technical thinking can be created (Land, 2000). The first step is to have the belief in humanistic principles. The key task is to improve on the quality of the employee’s working life and in job satisfaction. As a result, this enhances the productivity and yield of the firm. Secondly, these sets have an influence on the managerial values of a firm. The Socio-technical ethics can be said to be only instruments for attaining economic objectives. In humanistic objectives, there is no value and the goal achieved is employees’ high performance. Nonetheless, the conflict has increased the suspicion the ideas in the social-technical values from the employees and employers. Equity theory This theory was borrowed from the social sciences and, it focuses on individual perceptions of equality with respect to their relationship. When there is a social exchange, different people usually assess the ratio that explains the output and input of relationships. In Equity Theory, if an individual’s view that there is inequality in the output and input whether more or less, from another individual, then such a person is likely to be stressed. This theory can be applied in the prediction and clarification of situations. For example, given two situations where change is introduced to two employees, when one of these employees is given a higher amount of salary for the same amount of work than the other, this other employee is likely to be stressed. However, if this second employee perceives this whole situation as an appropriate action based on responsibilities, there is no loss of equality. Equity theory has been used in Information systems to predict and identify factors that affect a person to involve themselves in piracy of copyrighted software. Studies conducted have found out that outcome and input variables affect one’s intention to participate in software piracy. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) In the 1970’s there was a growing need for use of technology. During this time, cases of system rejection in organizations were increasing by the day. As a result, researchers had to look into this issue to identify the reasons why a system was either rejected or accepted by an organization (Chuttur, 2009, p. 1). Davis (1985), suggested the Technology Acceptance Model. According to him, external stimuli involving system capabilities and features determined user motivation and ultimately system use. Below is a model representing technology acceptance. Stimuli Organism Response The technology acceptance model is one of the most important theories used in information systems. This is because the success of new information systems has been determined by user acceptance. It is, therefore, important for software developers and technology innovators in the information system field to apply this theory. Using this theory they will be able to predict the degree to which the system will be used. Conclusion Information System discipline is fairly new in the market today. This filed has been responsible for the advancement of other significant fields including economics, marketing, medicine, physics etc. Due to the widespread use of Information System technologies there has been numerous researches conducted within this discipline. However, due to the fact that it is a new discipline, it has been necessary to import researchers from other fields. It is, therefore, natural that such researchers would employ theories, research methods and techniques from their previous field of expertise. Information System as a discipline is concerned with the relationship between people and machines. Applications are developed with an intention of solving human problems and making their work easier and efficient. Being a discipline that is focused on people and machines and, the fact that it incorporates researchers from other fields, Information System can be said to be a multidisciplinary field. The idea of developing applications for other fields has led to the adoption of theories from such fields. It has become necessary to incorporate these theories in order to develop effective and efficient applications. Therefore, theories used in Information Systems are adopted from other disciplines. This paper has demonstrated, through the use of examples, some of the theories that have been loaned from diverse disciplines. Information system as a discipline is, therefore, dependent on theories borrowed from other disciplines. It is in this way, that efficient and effective software and technologies can be developed within this field. 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