Language and Communication in Childhood - Coursework Example

Language acquisition is one of the main research areas of linguistics, which is focused by David Crystal of the University of Wales; meanwhile he estimates that two-thirds of the children alive today are growing up bilingual, in communities where more than one language is used. Linguists refer to this as learning a second language, one in everyday use in the learner’s environment. (Kristen) This book is for new parents because it contains a wealth of fascinating material about learning to talk. David Crystal is a professor of linguistics with a special talent for simplifying technical information and making it interesting and relevant to the layperson. The emphasis is on observing the child’s language. The book explains what developments to expect at each stage from birth to the early school years. It also gives practical exercises you can do with your child to discover what pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar he or she has learned. These exercises are simple, often using the child's toys, and are designed in such a way that the child will not feel that he or she is being tested. This book also provides reassurance that what looks like a problem can actually be a sign of progress. For example, children go through a stage of producing incorrect past tense forms, such as ‘goed’ and ‘knowed’. David Crystal explains that this happens because the child is not simply imitating adult speech. Rather, it has started noticing patterns in speech and is working out the rules for itself. Having noticed pairs such as ‘walk’/’walked’ and ‘jump’/’jumped’, the child devises a rule that says to add ‘ed’ to a verb to form the past tense. Later, the child will notice that there are exceptions to this rule and will correctly produce ‘went’ and ‘knew’. (Review) When comparing with national advice from Scottish Executive (2005) Birth to three we find that this document is a consultation document. It sets out draft guidance for adults involved in caring for babies and children aged 0-3 (it complements the advice offered in the document A Curriculum Framework for Children 3 to 5'). As with all curriculum frameworks applying to Scottish education, its role is to provide guidance rather than to prescribe. Safeguarding children’s best interests and insisting on the best are fundamental to meeting the needs of children, their families and everyone involved in young children’s well-being, care and education. It is important that all those involved in working with babies and young children have guidance that supports the sensitive and well-informed approaches. (Kraemer) This guidance recognizes the importance of the first three years and that the contribution which others make to children’s experience is crucial to their well-being, care and education. We know that children’s experience in their early years is very closely related to the quality of the care that they receive and that children’s very early experiences influence them as a person in the future. (Kraemer) Parents’ perceptions of their children’s educational experience are usually offered in decontextualised form, with no account taken of the social context in which those perceptions may have developed. In this article the authors explore the social contextual nature of parents’ perceptions of nursery education through the adoption of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Such a theoretical framework allows perceptions to be interpreted not only within the social contexts of the nursery class and of the broader social milieu, but also within the temporal context and the research process itself. Research was conducted in three nursery classes attached to primary schools in areas designated Educational Priority Areas. (Pauline Evans and Marry Fuller) The rhetoric of parental involvement in education, particularly in young children’s education, has a long history in the United Kingdom (McMillan, 1919; Central Advisory Council for Education, 1967) and still has currency (Dowling, 1992; Ball, 1994). Good home-school links are considered to be an indicator of an effective school in both research on school effectiveness in the United Kingdom and elsewhere (Rutter et al, 1979; Mortimore et al, 1988; Smith & Tomlinson, 1989; Teddlie & Stringfield, 1993; Scottish Office Education Department, 1995; Sammons et al, 1996) and in government inspections of British state schools (Ofsted, 1994). More recent changes in the marketization of education have seen the introduction of ‘Parents’ Charters’ and a general emphasis on parental choice and the voice of parents in their child’s education. However, as with many other aspects of ‘home background’, the rhetoric is mediated by issues of social class and ethnicity in terms of what are considered appropriate links, whose voice is to be heard and whose voice might be acted upon. There is a tradition within British education for treating children of working-class parents as deficient and in need of remedial or compensatory treatment, despite evidence to the contrary. Similarly, the voice and concerns of middle-class parents (or those perceived as middle-class) and of white as opposed to minority ethnic group parents tend to be prioritized (Grimes, 1995, 1997). The Scottish Executive is committed to the use of sound evidence in the development of policy and practice as well as in the evaluation of policy and its implementation. We therefore want to disseminate the results of research that SEED has undertaken and funded, in a manner that is accessible, interesting and attractive. Since the early 1990s, there has been an increasing amount of commercial activity in schools in the United Kingdom ( UK) (Atherton and Wells, 1999), mirroring a similar trend in the United States ( US). The Scottish Executive was committed to examining the range of commercial activities taking place in Scottish schools, as well as the associated costs and benefits which, at the time of this study, were relatively unknown. Hence, the study was intended as an initial step towards obtaining an evidence base on the extent of commercial activity currently being undertaken in a sample of Scottish schools. The main aims of the study were: to identify the range of commercial activity and the different types of costs and benefits (including non-financial); to explore local authorities & apos; views and policy position on such activity, and investigate the potential value of the Scottish Executive producing guidance and examples of best practice. The study had three strands: a desk-based review of literature to provide a context for the research; telephone interviews with a representative of 28 of the 32 local authorities in Scotland, (including those with a financial, advisory, curriculum or enterprise brief), and interviews with a representative in 50 schools across 27 local authorities in Scotland; and finally case-study work in 6 schools (2 primary and 4 secondary). The literature consistently revealed four main arenas of commercial activity: Arena 1: Product sales - the most common and arguably the most lucrative arena. It includes contracts between schools and businesses to sell branded products in school. Such contracts usually include food and drink, but may also include fundraising sales of, for example, cards and gift wrap. Arena 2: Direct advertising - a highly visible form of commercial activity, where companies advertise their product in schools, for example by having their logo on vending machines or by sponsoring a school football team. Arena 3: Indirect advertising - often through the promotion of corporate sponsored education materials ( SEMs) such as multimedia teaching kits, software, workbooks, lesson plans or reproducible activity sheets. Other forms of indirect advertising include corporate-sponsored contests and incentives such as voucher schemes. Arena 4: Market research practices - the least common form of commercial activity in schools. Such practices involve the use of questionnaires, focus groups or the Internet to gather data on pupils' preferences and/or consumer habits, or to test new products and advertising strategies. The review also showed that significant benefits could occur for the schools and businesses involved, while the costs or consequences tended to be borne more by individuals, i.e. pupils, parents and teachers. The literature stressed the need to weigh up the implications of involvement carefully, and the need for clear policies or guidance. Several - mainly US - sources highlighted budget constraints as a reason for schools' increasing involvement with commercial organisations. The type and extent of commercial activity in schools in Scotland The four arenas provided a starting point for discussions with local authority and school personnel about the different types of commercial activity currently taking place within their schools. Product sales identified by interviewees most commonly included the sale of food and drink through school tuck shops, canteens and (mainly at secondary level) vending machines. This was followed by the sale of: items produced by pupils as a result of Enterprise in Education activities; school uniform; school photographs; books and catalogue goods; and stationery. As in the literature, this was the most frequently mentioned type of activity. Direct advertising most commonly involved the sponsorship of school sports teams where companies’ logos or names would be displayed on the team strips. Other forms of sponsorship included school publications such as school yearbooks, magazines, newsletters, calendars and programmes for school events in which companies paid to advertise. There were examples in secondary schools of companies providing advertising space in schools (e.g. notice boards and poster sites), as well as logos on vending machines or water coolers. Isolated examples included the printing of lottery tickets with the company's name on and donations/prizes bearing the corporate name/logo. Examples of the latter included a minibus and a computer suite. Within the arena of indirect advertising, voucher schemes (e.g. for computer, sports or musical equipment, or books) were most commonly identified, followed closely by the donation by companies of prizes for awards ceremonies or school events, and the donation by companies of cash or gifts in kind. Other forms of indirect advertising included sponsored schemes, projects or competitions, sponsored educational materials (SEMs), the provision of conferences, presentations or workshops for pupils, branded software in schools, grant applications to businesses and a contract with a book store to allow staff to purchase books through the CPD budget. Market research was the least common form of commercial activity in schools (reflecting the findings from the reviewed literature). Approaches directly to schools were likely to be discouraged, as were requests for schools to be involved in research for commercial companies. Schools' involvement in educational research for reputable organizations and universities was usually supported. Some trialling of computer software and/or new products was noted, as was some research activity by pupils, usually as part of enterprise activity. Local authority staff reported that the extent of commercial activity taking place in schools was limited and varied across and within local authorities. However, there were different interpretations of what such activity constituted, depending on the role of the interviewee. School staff noted that commercial activity had existed in some form or another, albeit small scale, for a number of years. Consultation regarding engaging in commercial activity Consultation prior to becoming involved in commercial activity took place most often with school staff, particularly senior staff at the secondary level. References to consultation with parents were also common, as were references to consulting pupils, particularly through the pupil council and to a lesser extent, with the local authority. The income generated by commercial activities was reported by school interviewees to be low, particularly in terms of the overall school budget. As noted above, some stressed that income generation was not the primary purpose of any commercial activity. When asked where such income was spent, the highest- ranking response was to state non-specifically that it went into the ‘school fund’. Subsidizing school trips was the next most often identified usage, while some interviewees referenced specific items such as technical equipment, books, prizes and awards, sports equipment and reinvestment in yearbooks, planners and school magazines. The costs of commercial activity in schools For schools, the main costs or consequences of engaging in commercial activities were said to be: Increased burdens on staff/administrative time Compromising or conflicting values and/or policies The health of pupils through the sale or promotion of various products Over reliance on funding provided by companies Lack of choice in facilities or equipment provided The burden/cost of maintaining equipment donated Liability for promotion Being in breach of code of conduct or financial regulations (probity) Parents perceiving a lack of funding in the local authority The need for the school to match donated/received funding. The costs to individuals reflected those identified for schools, and focused on: The health of pupils Pupils’ over exposure to or representation of certain products Staff time Pressure on parents (pester power) Exploitation of children Pressure on pupils to participate in voucher schemes or to buy products Lack of protection for staff Financial costs Bullying. A wide range of ethical, educational and economic issues surrounding commercial activity was raised by interviewees from schools and local authorities. There was consensus that any commercial involvement had to be of direct benefit to pupils, ethical in nature as well as congruent with the values of the school and local authority. The meaning of ‘commercial activity’ was open to interpretation and could include enterprise, world of work and health initiatives, as well as more traditional product sales. This raised the question as to whether a clearer definition of commercial activity would be of assistance in maximizing opportunities for - and encouraging consistency across - schools and local authorities. The study also showed that low amounts of income and low-levels of activity were frequently reported. Colorful descriptors of such income like ‘a spit in the ocean’ again signified that it is educational merit that drives any commercial involvement. However, the report questions whether this financial modesty might inhibit opportunities and investment in educationally valid commercial activity. The report also questions how far costs and consequences are being fully articulated in schools’ calculations regarding commercial involvement, although the ‘caution’ and checking procedures described indicate potential costs are considered carefully. The study showed that schools and local authorities would value a document offering good practice guidelines and exemplars, and hence it was suggested including accounts of successful commercial activity, as well as checklists and caveats. (Scottish Executive, 2006a) Bibliography Kraemer, S, ‘Parenting Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow’ in A Professional handbook for Enhancing Parenting, Dwivedi, K, N, (ed.), 1997 Kristin l. Johannsen, Bridging the Gap - Learning Languages Has Taken a Quantum Leap as It Enters the Twenty-First Century Pauline Evans and Marry Fuller, Available from < www.triangle.co.uk/pdf/validate.asp%3Fj%3Diss%26vol%3D9%26issue%3D2%26year%3D1 999%26article%3Dpe+Wells,+Tizard+%26+Hughes+social+interactionism> Scottish Executive, 2006a Available from Read More