Language Variation, Language Attitudes, and Linguistic Discrimination - Essay Example

INTRODUCTION Language usage in communities around the world varies in several ways and forms. The same words have different meaning and the same concepts and ideas are communicated by different sections and different components of a given society or community. These differences have numerous implications and numerous practical application of these elements and aspects of linguistics to the language and the society at large. This paper examines important concepts and ideas in relation to the way people view things and the way people analyse issues and matters in relation to linguistics. To this end the paper will examine the relationship between language variation, language attitudes and linguistic discrimination. In order to attain this end, the following objectives will be explored: 1. A critical review of the concept of linguistic variation and its implications for the study of linguistics and other cultural trends and processes; 2. An evaluation of language attitudes and how this affects people and processes in the society 3. An analysis of the impact of language variation and language attitudes on the wider society in the form of linguistic discrimination. LANGUAGE VARIATION Language variation is the “differences in systems of a language that result from historical, geographic, social and fundamental changes. This affects a dialect and divides up a language to sub-groups”1. Language variation therefore signifies the ways and systems through which people who speak the same language vary the way they speak and convey ideas and communication through a peculiar or specific approach to conveying their messages. Language variation therefore hinges on the fact that different people have different approaches and different processes of presenting their information and message and this varies from person to person. In throwing more light on the essence of language variation, Thomson identifies that “language is a historical entity. It is intended to communication ideas and concepts. Variations are persuasive and change with time”2. Thomson’s view of language variation has to do with the fact that language is meant to present ideas and concepts. And within time and space, these concepts and ideas might vary and change as per the changes and modifications in the society. Hence, there are different variations and different approaches and processes through which this communication is carried out and through which different people have and build different views on presenting their ideas and concepts. To add more explanations to this, it can be said that homogeneity in society and in perceptions in the human race is fiction3. This implies that language, which is a product of the wider society within which people lives is bound to be as heterogeneous as the society within which it is used. Therefore, linguistic variation allows linguistics to study about the different versions and different processes that influences and defines a given language. Language variation and changes begin with the vernacular because a vernacular involves a style of speaking and using language in which minimum attention is given to the monitoring of speech4. This is because the vernacular of a given people involves the every-day speech and the rational conception of people in relation to changes in the environment and things around them. Two important and vital aspects of language that influences language variation involve situations where there are two different ways of saying the same thing and the ways in which people present abstractions5. This means that language variations revolve around synonyms and the use of distinct and unique approaches to dealing with different matters and situations. Thus, where a person says the same thing in one way that is different from other approaches and methods used by others, we have a case of language variation. Also, in other cases and situations where people have to say things that do not exist in a concrete manner, there might be different ways and conceptions that people may have in trying to describe or define everything. This culminates in language variation because there are various approaches and methods in saying the same things or trying to bring some abstract view or idea to life in a given context or process. There are three distinct orders within which language variation occurs in real life6. This includes the different approaches and different methods that are put forward for the processing and viewing language variation: 1. First order: This is a variation that involves individual utterances and the way individuals say the same things or present abstract conceptions. This is the basic order and might not be so significant as it represents a large degree of variations; 2. Second Order: This is a socially varied method or process of language variation. Here, you have social groups and small sections and segments in the society, tilting towards a given approach and method of expressing themselves; 3. Third Order: This involves a universal typology or process which exists throughout a broad spectrum of a given society. It is a method through which people from a large group have the same or similar approaches and methods of communicating with people and presenting the same ideas or concepts. Therefore, there are three spans and three levels within which language variation can be examined and reviewed. This creates a process and a system through which language variation is presented to different people and different members of the society. The main variables that are taken into account in analysing language variation include five main processes that often changes with changes in dialects7. This includes the following: 1. Pre-modification Versus Post-modification: This is about the definition of what exists before the modification and what happened after the modification. This gives a researcher the idea of what exists and how the changes have occurred and its impacts on the wider society; 2. Placement of Adverbs: This is about the way adverbs and other descriptive components of the language are presented. This shows the way communication is carried out and there could be variations and modifications on the basis of these arrangements and processes; 3. Use of Infinitives & Continuous Tense: There are different approaches and methods through which the verb forms are presented. This could change significantly with variation in most languages and this influences the forms and versions of a language that exists; 4. Selection of Demonstrative Angles: This is about the ways languages are employed to present ideas and concepts that could vary across community to community. The level of speaking and the related relics like body language and others have an impact on the definition of language variation; 5. Syntactic Variable: This is about the logic and the sequence of language and how language is broken down and made used to convey different ideas and concepts. This creates different approaches and different methods through which people present their views and ideas to others and could be different on the basis of people and persons who use them in a given community or society. The basic methodology for researching into language variation involves the following six steps which provide the avenue and procedure for investigating and analysing language variations8. They include amongst others: 1. Linguistic features that vary are identified by the researcher and this leads to the definition of the dependent variable and this will be matched with the independent variable; 2. Sampling and choosing the different participants and how they will be studied. This will be based on the distribution of the variables and this can be studied and presented in a way that will be representative of the wider society and community; 3. Gathering data: This phase is about how to gather relevant data by studying the properties of the population identified in the samples and this is presented in ways that bring out the realities and shows how different the variables and populations are; 4. Analysis of data and frequencies: This is about a critical review of the data and the frequency of occurrence. This involves the critical interpretation of the findings and the presentation of these findings in relation to the wider and larger variables in the study; 5. Identification of relevant social factors and this involve the presentation of important trends and the connection of these trends to the findings. This is used to refine the interpretation and provide trends about language variation and provide an understanding and insight into language variation 6. Correlations between variables are defined and this is presented as core and fundamental findings in the study. They are used to describe and analyse the findings and provide insights into the core findings and conclusions This scientific method enables linguistics to analyse and review elements and aspects of linguistic variation. This provides the core and fundamental approach through which language variation can be deduced and presented. This can be used to help to apply these aspects and elements of linguistics to social matters and provide important answers and important solutions to issues and matters. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES Attitude is the primary building stone in the edifice of social psychology9. This is because attitude defines the dominant trend and the dominant process that is to be utilised in defining a given idea or concept. Language attitude is defined as “any affective, cognitive or balanced index of evaluative reactions towards different language variations and their speakers”10. This implies that language attitudes is about the way people perceive and accept or admit various variations and differences in language as it exists in a given society. Attitude which influences language balance and behaviour towards language is defined as language attitudes11. Therefore the way a person perceives and treats people of different linguistic origins defines the language attitudes of a given society or community. Language attitude involve language planning and functions allocated to the language and this culminates in the attitudes that a person has towards the speaker of a given language12. Language attitudes are cognitive this is because they define people’s views about the world and these beliefs and views shape people’s worldview about others based on the way and manner in which they speak13. Language attitudes are affective and they evoke feelings about a given person or a group of people14. Language attitudes are behavioural and they are systematically linked to behaviour and these things are mainly due to the conception and the importance or contempt that people attach to a given language. The concept of language attitude creates relationships between the speakers of different language and its variations. It changes with cognition, affects and readiness for different language varieties and this thrives and grows as a person gets more experience with a given language15. Attitudes lead to forms of descriptions and classification of languages into social groupings and classifications. To this extent, there are about five main headings and categorisations that are used to classify languages and define language attitudes and they include16: 1. Creoles/Pidgins/Trade Languages: These are languages that develop from mainstream languages due to some degree of urgency. It creates a sub-group and a modified group that seem to have a cultural background that is viewed as foreign and steeped in new ideas and new concepts. Examples include the Criolos of Brazil, Pidgin English in West Africa, Swahili (a variation of Arabic developed for Arab traders in East Africa), Aramaic (a version of Hebrew that developed after the Babylonian Exile) and Yiddish (which is a modified version of Hebrew mixed with European languages). 2. Classical/Standard/Official Versus Modern/Non-Standard Languages: These are languages that are either classical or connected to a given recognised approach or system of communicating. These ones are in contrast with other languages that evolved or developed as a result of modern or contemporary changes. Examples include the official Queen’s English as against other versions of English that have developed in the United States and other British Commonwealth nations. These are modern variations of English. 3. Social Significance of Language: This involves the attachment of views and perceptions that relate to the social impact and import of a given language. For instance, Hebrew is connected to Judaism and other aspects of Jewish traditions. Arabic and Latin are connected to Islam and Christianity respectively. American English is connected to liberal views and unique and distinct methods of expressing oneself; 4. Dialect Differences and Mutual Intelligibility: This involves different languages that have different meanings and different processes that enable speakers to understand each other. This involves different dialects and different versions of the same language that varies across geographical scope. This include languages like Spanish and Portuguese which seem to resonate on the same level but yet, contain several differences due to the history and social structures in either communities or societies in which the languages are spoken. 5. Second Language Learning: This form a class within each language group and this include people who speak other languages as their primary language. These groups are somewhat a minority in every language group and they tend to have differences in conception and ideas about how language must be spoken and this creates different cultural attitudes within each of the language groups. LINGUISTIC DISCRIMINATION Linguistic discrimination refers to the situation whereby people are classified and treated on the basis of the language variation that they belong to in the same linguistic group17. This is because language attitudes vary with language variation. This is because language in itself is a form of identification and an identity. Thus, where a person is connected or identifies with a given language group, that person is presented or viewed in relation to the kind of language and the kind of social grouping that person belongs to. Thus, language discrimination creates a system whereby people are classified and judged through various unconscious and subconscious views and opinions of others. Therefore, this creates a concept of language prejudice which is about causing people to feel ashamed for using their own local language or judging people favourably on which kind of language they use18. This means that language discrimination has its roots in the views and stereotypes that people attach to different groups and different classes of people. Empirical studies identify that different groups and different people in nations, particularly those who were either of immigrant backgrounds or second-class statuses are linked to language discrimination19. Studies show that in most nations, there are people who are classified as lower class and many of them struggled to learn the standardised form of the lingua franca. This created a negative connection and negative attribution to such persons. Groups like African-Americans learnt English in unstructured environment after they were forced into America. Studies about African-Americans show that they are connected to lower and negative things due to the language they speak. Other African Americans who studied in structured environments and speak fluent and official English are treated differently and relatively better due to the concept and idea of language discrimination. Language discrimination also links certain classes of people to certain views and ideas due to the language variation they have. In a peer reviewed journal, it was identified that speakers of conservative forms of languages are given much respect and are seen to be people who can be trusted due to their entrenched nature in the society or community that they belong to20. This indicates that different people have different perceptions and different conceptions of people and this is steeped in the linguistic discrimination and its attitudes and connections that people have concerning certain social and cultural groups. CONCLUSION Language variation refers to the differences and modifications that come with the way people speak various languages and present their views in different contexts and circumstances. Language variation provides the basis for the differentiation of different languages and different people based on how they speak and express themselves. Language variation gives way to linguistic attitudes. This leads to situations and contexts where different attitudes are formed based on the way people speak and the way people say and conceive things through language. Hence, these attitudes and classification of people is steeped in the differences in the dialects and the way people present ideas in the same language group or class. Language variation and language attitudes systematically lead to language discrimination. And this involves various conscious and unconscious attitudes and practices that grow and get entrenched in a given society or community because of the way they perceive and view other people who speak various dialects and various languages. BIBLIOGRAPHY Amara Muhammed. Politics & Sociological Reflexes Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2013 Balasubramanian Chandrika. Register variation in Indian English Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. 2013 Chad Vicenik & Megha Sundare. “The Role of Intonation in Language & Dialect Discrimination by Adults” Journal of Phonetics 41(5) pp297 - 306 Dixon-Fyle Mac & Cole Gibril Raschid. New Perspectives on Sierra Leonean Krio New York: Peter Lang. 2013 Fasold Ralph & Schiffrin, Deborah. Language and Change Variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2012. Hinskens, Frans. Langauge Variation: European Perspectives Amsterdam: John Benjamis, 2012 Krug Manfred & Schulter, Julia. Research Methods in language Variation Change. 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