Employing Women in Hospitality Industry - Literature review Example

HOSPITALITY INTRODUCTION: Hospitality in reality expects nothing in return but the contentedness of the guest. In hospitality industry, it is quite obvious that such a Utopian trend of non-expectancy can not be attained. In any trade or industry fruits are naturally expected for the labour. However, women in general are relatively more prone to be altruistic than men. Employing women in hospitality industry has thus paved way for a successful ongoing. Men have always been the financial providers while women have been home keepers and are givers. Changes have taken place due to globalization and more women are entering the work field. Nevertheless, it is seen that always women have faced gender discrimination in any career that they have tried to pursue. Be it as a teacher or a nurse, as corporate managers or scientists, or the hospitality sector the reasons remain the same for all the women. Women definitely have a dual role to play—taking care of the family and functioning at the work place—and to avoid the role conflict and reduce the anxiety and stress, women prefer business or flexible schedules and refrain from accepting higher responsibility at work. The hospitality sector is particularly demanding because of irregular hours of work. The Equal Opportunities Commission warns that gender equality is still generations away and may take 20 to 25 years to close the gap. (Adfero, 2007) Rationale for research: - The hospitality sector is one of the fastest growing sectors in U.K. studies assess an under-representation of women managers and gender discrimination issues at work place. A survey on U.K hospitality industry saw a total of 2,042 respondents out of which 570 were women. (FHRAI, 2002). The survey revealed that more women were working in part-time positions than men were. While the catering and hotel industry in U.K. are focusing on attracting women in the industry, and while the catering industry makes up for 68% women, women are found in the back of the house management—administration and housekeeping. Some associate this with the lack of education while others link it to the gender issue or even lack of interest by women themselves. Women are seldom found in managerial positions and based on this the research question would be: What are the factors affecting women’s career advancement in the hospitality industry? Literature Review 1.The Strength of women work force in Tourism: Worldwide tourism is an important sector for women who make up to 46% of the tourism labor force (Vargas & Aguilar, 2002). There is a significant vertical and horizontal gender segregation of the labour market. Women all over the world have always faced discrimination in terms of management positions and levels of pay. Cobb & Dunlop (1999) agree that the gender gap still exists in the arte of promotions and the women are at a disadvantage (cited by Zhong, 2006). While the scene is gradually changing, the pace of change is ‘painfully slow’ and a new-found entrepreneurial streak and the surging cost of childcare may be responsible for the trend as said by Sarah Churchman, the head of diversity at Pricewaterhouse Coopers. (BBC, 2007) as Zhong (2006) also observes that women represented 20% to 40% of management positions in about 60 countries (ILO) but they continue to be underrepresented in management positions compared to their overall employment. Ms Ruth Kelly, Communities Secretary suggests modalities to improve profit margins by way of offering women help with flexible working, time-share and good quality part-time work. Her assertion that “just because a woman decides to trade down her hours, doesn’t mean she should trade down her status” sounds heartening.(BBC, 2006). But David Conway of social policy think tank Civitas is of the view that the trend is not ascribed to sex discrimination but opines that the results are due to women preferring to start families. Non-accommodation of work-shares or childcare beaks are thus owing to the requirement of a lot of full-time dedication in some senior management roles. (BBC, 2006) Burke and Vinnicombe (2006) contend that aging workforce and fewer new entrants has resulted in shortage of qualified leaders, forcing organizations to utilize and develop talents all of its employees. Under the circumstances they cannot afford to artificially limit the career possibilities of women. This itself implies that women are capable but are being denied the opportunities. 2.Types of transitions: There are three types of transitions impacting working women at their work places – career-focused transitions, life-cycle induced transitions and workplace or market-induced transitions (Womenomics, 2006). Life-cycle induced transitions are the most common transitions in hospitality industry requiring many working women to ask more of their work places in terms of work-life effectiveness, flexibility and autonomy. Since employees in this transition cycle in and out of their work places often to deal with some obligations and enhanced care giving responsibilities, the employers are constrained to bear a cost for losing trained employees. The cost of replacing a highly-skilled employee can range from 150-250 percentage of their salary for employers. This financial instability explains why many employers provide little training opportunities for part-time women employees. Women change jobs twice as often as men, which is a reason for concern and warrant research. They even switch jobs between sectors and prefer a job where they can make a difference. They prefer jobs which offer facility for skill development to increase their employability. Studies suggest that when women do get access to functional roles in their current employment, they either stall in their career advancement or move to other employers. Denial of promotion to mothers on the assumptions that they would leave the job for the betterment of their kids and family affaires is also an impact of this style of transition in the hospitality industry. 3.Involvement of women in hospitality industry: A survey conducted by The Caterer revealed that women are not entering the managerial posts but are opting for traditionally female roles (FHRAI, 2002). The Restaurant Association claims that they do not employ based on gender but on merit and they feel there is significant advancement for women to rise up the ladder in managerial positions. The issue of diversity can lend sustainability and the organizations have to go beyond discrimination. Organizations benefit in different ways like culture, change and learning based engagement with managing inequality and difference as there is enough evidence to prove that organizational culture is a major impediment to women’s progress into senior management (Mann, 1995). Ninety percent of the people employed as chambermaids, flight attendants, sales personnel and cleaners are women (Vargas & Aguilar, 2002). The abundance of full-time, part-time, seasonal, temporary and casual work available in the tourism sector is a key attraction by women, and is preferred mostly by mothers of young children carers, semi-retired women and students, although young mothers are forbidden the right for flexible working arrangements at their interview stage itself.. (LDA, 2003). They preferred the workplace flexibility and the positive impact it has on family life. Women tend to value the joy, contentment and happiness derived from being with the family, which gives them sense of fulfilment and positively affects their professional lives as well. Fulfilment relates to learning and growing which provides sense of confidence. The fact that women prefer part-time work is corroborated by the statistics of the first three months of 2002 which shows that men in full time employment were double the number of women, while women as part-time workers were four times that of men engaged in part-time employment. This growing number of women work force in hospitality industry has provided some sort of secured labor force in the in the industry. This is evident from the fact that even after 30 years after the legislation of the Equal Pay Act 1970, British women still earn 0.74 % of what a man earns. Dubbing the younger generation as ‘ Kleenex generation’ and throwing after single use in areas like fast food restaurants delineates the current plight of young people especially women who are forced to work for funding their education.(Grundy & Jamieson, 2002). Zong however finds that women lack the education, skills and work experience necessary to be an executive or a manager. Management diversity is defined as the proportion of women among the highest-ranking CEOs in firms and on boards of directors (Smith, Smith & Verner, 2006). Female managers are supposed to be best qualified in terms of education for top management posts and to be on the board of directors. Women have a better understanding of certain segments and this could lend creativity and innovation to the work place. Women on board of directors have positive impact on firm performance. There are other suggestions that women differ from men in their aspirations and expectations in career; they also differ in the definition of success. Women have also been blamed for being emotional as there are differences in the expectations and acceptance of emotional expression (Zhong, 2007). Some researchers observe that women change their life choices after reaching middle management level (Cornelius & Skinner, 2006). These observations basically stem from men and employers as a means to discourage women from aspiring for the senior level management positions. 4.Positive and negative impacts of women’s involvement in the industry: The negative effect of tourism is the aggravation of the social problems like prostitution and drug addiction. Expectation of the customers for the women employees of tourism to ‘play along’ with their sexual harassments is really an irksome inhibition for the women employees to work in the field of hospitality. The typical ‘gender pyramid’ is prevalent – lower levels and occupations with few career development opportunities available to women (Vargas & Aguilar, 2002) while a report in HRMID (2006) confirms that women are victims of discrimination is evident from the fact women have filed high profile suits successfully against their employer for discrimination based on their gender. Women definitely have a dual role to play but this can be overcome by creating more quality part-time roles to increase the number of women in senior roles. This is essential in view of the fact that businesses are disadvantaged by not selecting the best executives from the largest talent pool, reports Treanor (2007) of The Guardian. Companies continue to spend heavy amounts in repeated recruitments and training and they could save on this through reduced attrition. Feyerherm and Vick (2006) suggest that re-examining the corporate culture could enhance values like openness, mutual respect and continuous learning. The culture change should also include work-life effectiveness programs or flexible work options work (Womenomics, 2006). A study by Cornell University revealed that stock of companies that went public with more women in top management teams performed better in both short and long run than those with no or few women at the helm of affairs (Corporate Board, 1999). The survey further revealed that having more women on top executive teams had positive and significant effect on both stock-price growth and earnings-per-share growth. 5.Benefits of low level pay structure for employers: Research also suggests that London relies a great deal on migrant labor and more so in the hospitality sector where the women experience downward social mobility. More than 59% of hospitality employees have dissatisfaction over the policies of the employers that include extracting work beyond the hours and pushing them to do about three persons job with no extra remuneration. (Evans et al., 2005). Women have been found to be better employees because they make a better team or more suited to ‘people-oriented work’ but the women find that ‘tourism does not offer a liveable wage’ in London. However they exhibit highest tolerance towards their low pay and accept pay packets as long as the pay structure is set at or above the industry standard for their occupation and their skill set. Although the core could not be completely understood, some women are attracted towards the industry because of the training opportunities provided. But the employers—organizations—tend to provide less or very minimal training for part-time women employees. (LDA, 2003). It may be ‘good for a second income’ and hence more women are found in the sector than men as Evans et al., also confirm that the lowest rates of pay were found in the London’s catering industry. The reason for less number of women staff in top level managerial posts is ascribed to their lessened inclination towards ‘climbing the career ladder’. Employers opine that such disinclination in women are due to their dual responsibility at home and work place, which make them reluctant to uproot their families for the cause of their career development. Employment Act 2003, which paved way for flexible working arrangements for young mothers, is seldom in vogue because of the reluctance of the many employers, on whose views lenience provided under flexible working arrangements would create resentment in the remaining staff and the staff would ‘take advantage’ of the lenience. In this environment, many mothers are forced to skip child care organizing of their kids, which creates frustration in their balancing of work-life structure. LDA suggests that the development of employer-supported childcare would go far in helping to alleviate the strains of balancing work and family life for young mothers. 6.Sexual harassment to women employees: Sexual harassment, including unwanted attention or intimidation of a sexual character is widespread in the hotel, tourism and the catering industry. A study of 502 working women in Luxemburg aged between 16 and 50 years in the hospitality industry were reported to be the sector most affected (Hoel & Einarsen, 2003). In the UK bullying and harassment were reported by 24.2% of the respondents. Waiters were most prone to sexual harassment and the most common acts of harassment were obscene language and jokes, and sexually suggestive comments. Mainly women in junior positions experience sexual harassment which demonstrates that it ahs to do with both gender and power issues. With low levels of education, they are less confident than other employees when dealing with difficult people in positions of power. Apart from this, irregular working hours, night shifts, dress code and a suggestive physical environment also make them prone to sexual harassment. Being exposed to unwanted sexually related attention is considered to be part of the job (Hoel & Einarsen, 2003). A study of British Hotel employees concluded that the hotel is not a rational environment where there is agreement over social norms or acceptable behaviour between customers and staff. Review of the literature suggests that there could be several factors affecting the career advancement of women in the hospitality industry. These include differences in traits, for example, being emotional, gender bias, woman’s home-making responsibility, sexual harassment, lack of educational opportunities, lack of skills, availability of part-time work, availability of diverse career opportunities. Based on these, the research would be conducted. Since the entire talk of inequality, sex discrimination and disparity in pay structure revolves around the social problems as envisaged by Vargas & Aguilar, a socio-psychological perspective would pass more light on the issues for attempting mitigation of impasses which may though take years or decades to reach. 7. A Socio-psychological perspective: I feel some basic deformity in our social construct that pervades invariably all fields of work including hospitality industry. A Socio-Psychological perspective the light of which when passed on our subject of hospitality industry would make it clear where we still stand in the name of globalisation, trade development, technological innovations and all. Politics is generally a realm of power-centred play ground. It comprises basically two groups of people—one to rule and the other to be ruled—in which the ruled mass must necessarily posses the qualities of subordination in one or in all respects. In any kind of politics this is the basic undertone. In social interactions too this formula works out. Although Status and knowledgeable capability form part of these criteria, sex is an easiest core of distinction to stratify a set of population on the grounds of frailty. Discrimination of sex in the industry of hospitality in which the need for the services of women work force is highly demanding is a critical issue to be analysed well in depth. This being the general formula adopted, the reason for male ruling or trying to govern females is still obscure. In what way male community is more powered than females? Answer to this question was derived in a deformed state. That is, the biological importance given to male community is the seed bed of all these chaos. As far as the physical strength is concerned no specific distinction is found in human anatomy. Physical strength is something related to the food habit and exercise practices followed by individuals. The role of males in procreation has wrongly been assigned a greater importance from time immemorial keeping females in a relatively lower plane. This is where the crux of the entire scenario lies. A phenomenon in which two entities are the comprising units, and in which the responsibilities and activities are equally shared among the entities, is it nice to adjudge one to be superior to the other? In sex, the biological convenience of males occupying an upper position is wrongly construed as a rule of law to consider males as superior in extra sexual ambit too. The recent evolution of feministic views in many societies is also subjected to certain limitations of underplaying the dominance of females, despite the fact that women begin to occupy increasingly greater fields of occupation whence, males are alone believed to be fit to occupy. Even in the aristocratic realms where women are in supreme power, the real power of governing lies in the hands of males leaving the ‘Queen-bee’ status to the women in top brass. . The top posts in hospitality industry occupied in some firms also assume such ‘Queen-bee’ status. An analysis recently made by Rachel Stone (2007) on ninth century marriage disputes revealed that despite the patriarchal basis of Carolingian society, the power even of elite men over women and marriage was often highly contingent. However such restrictions on power did not endanger the gender order. The masculinity of the men involved in these marriage disputes like archbishops, popes and kings was not questioned. (Rachel Stone, 2007) The biological bias is the chief predictor of male domination in several societies leading to or exacerbating the condition to male chauvinism via patriarchy. Such narcissistic awareness had paved way to allow only the males in the forefront and women in the backdrop. What has made women, who are actually equal in almost all realms and activities to men in their life, to go along with and accept this masculine intransigence? Perhaps, the attainment of a natural equilibrium may be ascribed to such enduring traits of women in any society. 7.1 Evolutionary theory: Evolutionary theory attempts to explain a little bit why and how such equilibrium is tended to be reached. Mating preferences throw light on the theory. In our social interaction, some are found to be more attractive while others are not. Some are perceived as potential mates and some are not. What is the criterion that decides attractiveness and unattractiveness? Mere concept of beauty alone is not able to cover the term attractiveness, because beauty is a triad between the seer, the seen and the heed. Perfect compositions of all the three alone constitute beauty. The genetic predisposition to search for sex and also for falling in love fixes the mating preferences. Prevalence of un-identical desires among men and women opens a fresh gate for mutual love and attraction. Men look for certain physical attributes that signal health and fertility in women whereas women consider men to be attractive if they are capable of protecting them and their children. (Buss, D.M, 1989) (Sprecher S, et al, 1994). Women’s preferences for men to be good providers reflect their hoary economic dependence on men rather than genuine biological preferences. Cultural obligations, playing an important role in mate preferences, keep women in a less dominant stature. Evolutionary theory has thus given way to Social Exchange theory, which provides explanation for contemporary situations, wherein women with more economic power reveal physical attractiveness as their mating preferences. (Eagly. A.H & Wood. W, 1999). A comparative study carried out by Carrie Yodanis in 2007 revealed that women’s money management skills involved more work than power. (Carrie Yodanis, Sean Lauer, 2007). The role of home makers in women thus explains their increased attention towards their kids and families. Making money becomes a secondary goal for women which prompts them very little to aspire for more responsible positions in their work places, although more income potential is likely to come along with their promotions. More over, the economic dependence of women on men is currently fading slowly, which is yet to assume a full-fledged financial controlling position. 7.2 Social transparency and sexuality: In any social interaction, transparency is the strength. This is because the more the transparency, the more developments in interactions that strengthens the relationships. Obviously the non-transparency leads to reduced interactions weakening the relation ships. Unfortunately, interaction between the only available two sexes is clouded by an illusory mist of non-transparency. The sexual freedom, which fell on the heads of women in late fifties and sixties via proliferation of contraceptives, has given way for women to conceal their power of procreation. The other side of this sexual freedom towards men also has its impact. Men have begun to still consider women as relatively a lower gender as their fertility is kept behind the screen. Fertility oriented connotation of female strength has thus lost its strength of transparency. Women have thus become simply the objects of love, passion, sex and everything naming females as frail sex. This type of sex objectification in women is wrongly traded in the industry. Their beauty is used as bait for prospective customers, who expect women staff to endure their harassments and forces them to ‘play along’ with their mischief. Such frailty emerges out of lack of self recognition by women. A recent study by Charity B.et al (2007) reveals that women with a history of sexual victimization were having difficulty in identifying risky cues and not perceiving their own vulnerability for future assaults. (Charity B. et al 2007) Affixing such inanimate and object like stature for womanhood exacerbates the plight further into the evolution of male domination and chauvinism. Although the kingdom of Men was capable of using this trend towards their benefits, it was—and probably is-- a tremendous burden on them to cope up with, since maintaining an illusory disparagement was quite an unnatural force to sustain. ‘Kill to love’ is awkward. The inherent urge for males to dominate has unfortunately fallen on the other sex – the only available female sex—created for social interaction and development of well being. The internal conflicts and contradictions are to be resolved after crossing so many obstacles and after meeting several challenges. The basic self – recognition system has to undergo radical changes, which itself is many thousand miles away. Sigmund Freud’s way of assigning a sexual meaning to every events of human life span has been refuted by many theorists who followed him. Even some ardent followers of Freud like Alfred Adler were going away with the views of Freud de-emphasizing sex in favour of the sources of unconscious conflicts. However, Freud’s ideologies could not altogether be rejected as invalid. This is the strength of Freud’s interpretations. His approach towards narcissism is still unable to be diluted by the findings of the researches that followed. The concept of id, ego and super ego is yet to be analyzed and understood in depth. The present position of self consciousness is in midway between id and ego. Freud’s contention that attaining perfect equilibrium in the stage of ego alone would pave way to the attainment of super ego can never be challenged in any manner. Aggressive utterance of words expressing the genital organs during emotional outburst especially anger and violence is still the sign of under development in our evolution. Creation of Humans in nature is just a milestone of the biological development in the evolution. To Know the Self knowing others is a must. Nature has biologically paved way for such knowledge by enabling human race alone to copulate among the partners/mates face-to-face. The stagnation in the narcissistic awareness of human beings indicates thousands of miles to go. Egoic consciousness is just a stage of evolution in which identification of the Self predominates. On analyzing Abraham Maslow’s (1970) need theory and perceiving the current state of human evolution in the light of that theory we can understand that the theory delineates clearly where the human race still is. In his view people who attained the self-actualization position were very few including Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein and Mahathma Gandhi. (Stephen M. Kosslyn & Robin S. Rosenberg, 2001) Even the attainment of self-actualization is the top most position in self-identification stage only. Self-realization is far high to reach. The current state of self-identification restricted to mere narcissism and body image is just immediate after the primitive stage of self-consciousness, in which only the appetites of the self was the focus. CONCLUSION: In hospitality industry the need for women work force is well identified but little understood. The skill of women are to be tapped only on offering them the required protection for their familial maintenance, as women are prone to focus more on their families for which alone they prefer to work even in hard hours, although it is quite opposite to their main aspiration. Appointing them in part-time capacities may absolve the employers from spending many funds towards their training costs and maintaining a low level of pay structure for women may perhaps ease their fiscal position currently. But in a long run, women are certain to embark a state of boredom, which is quite inevitable. This can be pragmatically minimized by way of providing them the required status, esteem and equal wages. On going through the literature we are left with the following three questions to arrive at a plausible answer to our research question: “SHOULD THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY BE WORKING TOWARDS CREATING MORE PARTTIME MANAGEMNT POSTS IN ORDER TO CAPTURE ON THEIR FEMALE WORKFORCE”. Question No.1. What opportunities exist for working part time at management level in the hospitality industry? As such part time employment in hospitality industry is abundantly available only in the level of field works such as clerical, data entry, customer care, sales and marketing. Management level jobs commonly come under full time job type only. Very few firms call for such posts in part time basis. Horizon Hospitality Associates Inc, has recently called for Restaurant Recruiters on part time basis. AM Recruiters are to work from 8A.M to 12 noon and PM Recruiters from 1. P.M to 5 P.M. The industry has to set itself in an apt groove to make use of part time employees especially in managerial levels. Question No.2. What are the issues/barriers in creating part time management posts? Issues that are coming across in creating part time management posts mainly cover salary, training, flexible working arrangements and curbing harassments to women employees. Barriers are simply the implementation of the above mentioned issues. Equal Pay Act 1970 is attempted with utmost care to be implemented despite the fact that complete implementation is hindered by several socio-economical factors. Many firms are affording training to permanent staff only and hesitate to offer training to part time staff. The main reason for such hesitation is the labour security on the part of the part time employees who are at any time prone to leave their job for betterment in their career. Flexible working arrangements although suit best to women staff, employers limit the same on the fear that other – including male – staff would make claim for the same flexibility without any justifiable grounds. Employers’ fear also include that social loafers would take advantage of this flexibility. Curbing harassments to women employees is attended to invariably by all firms as long as the perpetrators are staff within the industry. However, harassments from customers are painfully advised to be borne with by the women employees. Even while monitoring the harassments from the staff side some administrations meet with blockades because the perpetrators are from the top level management itself. In this process also women employees are forced to endure. The trait of overall sustainability in women pulls them on to the industry. Question No.3: Would part time management posts be considered a desirable option to enable women in the hospitality industry to manage work/family conflicts? Currently the option is desirable because women are let with ample time to care their kids and families by the part time employment. Many women in hospitality industry feel content with their jobs since the nature of the job provides them satisfaction over maintenance of their status. As long as women do not consider disparity in pay structure as an issue of respect, pride and status the current trend of low pay structure would prolong in the industry. As long as the desire for power is clubbed with narcissistic awareness, the problems, inequalities and dangers to one sex are uncontrollable. Power to rule, if accompanies a corporate psyche in which both labour and fruits are shared among the constituent members irrespective of gender differences, then an equilibrium between the sexes can be attained and sex-bias would be slowly evaporating. ** ** ** ** ** ** ** Reference list – Adfero Ltd (2007), UK gender equality will take generations, http://www.managingdiversity.co.uk/news_article.php?ID=18222855 07 Nov2007 BBC, 2006 – “Gender equality is decade away” 5 January 2006 BBC, 2006- “Plans to help women in work place” 11 September 2006 BBC (2007), No women chiefs in 38% of firms, 07 March 2007 Burke, R., & Vinnicombe, S., (2006), Advancing womens careers. 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