The History of the United States - Essay Example

HISTORY OF UNITED S by Date Introduction In international relations, war is considered inevitable as economic powers seek to maintain the balance of power. Any interference with this balance can trigger major or minor wars. In Friedrich Benhardi a social Darwinist’s words “war is a biological necessity, it is universal law of nature.” 1 In the history of the United States, various wars have been fought including the Indian wars meant to accomplish the manifest destiny of America; that is, westward expansion to spread civilization, the Spanish-American War meant to achieve Cuban independence and the Great War which is one of the deadliest conflicts in history fought by major economic great powers. All these wars are of great importance to U.S history as they helped shape the nation as it is today. They marked major milestones in the U.S history. Following these Wars and the Second World War that followed, the U.S has remained the only superpower after Russia or Soviet Union collapsed. Many small nations also gained their independence in the spirit of America of spreading democracy. This paper will discuss the major wars in U.S history from 1877 to 1918 with the end of the Great War (First World War) with special interest to major turning points and the significance of the wars for U.S. The Indian Wars The Indians Wars in the Great Plains were a result of the expansionist policies by the U.S federal government especially in the West after the Civil War of 1861-1865. Americans believed in manifest destiny (U.S destiny to expand its territory westward) hence immediately the Republican government assumed office they began westward expansion into Mississippi thus displacing the Indians and confining them into reserves.2 The displacement was inevitable to give way to rapid economic development in the West. This coupled with railroad expansion, new mining ventures, the destruction of the only source of livelihood (buffalo) and the demand for land by the ever-increasing white immigrants led to conflicts in the Indian Territory. The West was considered to be an empty place with no habitation but the Americans were wrong as many Native American Indians who relied on buffalo hunting and farming lived there and were very resistance to Indian removal. This worsened by discovery of gold in California leading to more immigrants for prospectus. The only problem in the area was scarcity of water leading to conflicts over the useful resource; water was needed for agriculture as well as mining and all economic activities in the area. These developments brought about upheaval in Indian’s lives leading to resistance and necessity for war.3 This was mostly so for farmers who were permanent settlers unlike nomadic hunters. These farming tribes included: Arikaras, Pawnees, Wichitas and Mandans especially after the Homestead Act of 1862 that allowed land owning. The Medicine Lodge Creek Treaty of 1867 had seen the Indians accept reservations but some southern plain tribes refused to accept the terms of the treaty hence resisted removal by attacking stagecoaches, ranches, travellers and military units. Furthermore, those who signed the treaty did not obligate others to accept the terms as the structure of authority of Indian people was fluid.4 This prompted General William Tecumseh Sherman to apply military force outside the reservations. Another resistance came from Kiowa, Comanche and Cheyenne tribes in the Red River region of Texas in order to prevent their only source of livelihood from being wiped out through hunting leading to the Red River War of 1874-1875. The resistance was led by leaders such as Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull. The army in response applied war of attrition to force them to surrender thus denying them food and shelter.5 Most of the Indians would eventually surrender due to cold and hunger especially during the winter season thus paving way for economic expansion. The Sioux in the black hills were not spared as gold was discovered in their reservation in 1874. Miners flocked to the area forcing Indians to move or assimilating them into their culture. This led to the Great Sioux War in 1876 thus ending sustained resistance. The war was waged under Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer who died in the battle at Little Bighorn. The turning point for the Indian wars was the surrender by Chief Joseph the leader of Nez Perce. Chief Joseph had made an attempt to flee his people by moving to Canada but was stopped just before they could reach the border. The harsh environment coupled with hunger and death of many Indians forced the tribes to sue for peace and accept reservation way of life. According to Berkin et al, more than 200 Indians died on the way and those who managed to return were exiled to Indian Territory.6 The last major confrontation however, took place in 1890 in South Dakota. Contrary to previous resistance where Indians used violence, the Lakotas resisted through the Ghost Dance.7 This was a spiritual dance started by Paiute Shaman Jack or Wovoka where Indians got the promise of returning to their old way of life without whites and with a lot of buffaloes. This led to killing of Sitting Bull to stop further defiance. Big Foot led some Lakotas to flee but were accosted by the cavalry near Wounded Knee Creek and were massacred while dancing. In this case, 250 Native Americans died and so were 25 soldiers thus marking the end of Indian Wars as further resistance was curbed completely. The Indian wars were very significant in U.S history as they resulted in the erosion of Indian culture and paved way for expansion in the West. Without further resistance the area was developed economically. Trade thrived as well as mining and more white immigrants continued to flock the area. The manifest destiny had been accomplished. Moreover, the once flat and treeless land was made useful for agriculture through irrigation thus economic prosperity. The Spanish-American War The Spanish-American War was a culmination of Cuba’s struggle for independence from Spain although the U.S also had the motive of protecting its economic interests in the pacific and the Caribbean. The war took ten months ending with a peace treaty (Treaty of Paris) in December, 1898 that saw Spanish cede Guam, Puerto Rico, and Philippines to the U.S as well as annexation of Hawaii by the US. As such, the war meant that Spain’s colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere was over and the birth of U.S as a pacific power. Cuba also gained independence with the assistance from U.S government and with the understanding of the Teller and Platt amendments which forbid U.S from occupying Cuba permanently. The amendments deterred U.S imperialistic motives. The question that needs to be answered is how or why the U.S entered the conflict, how the war progressed and the major turning points. There are many reasons as to why America would intervene in Cuba conflicts. During the reign of President James Monroe, the Monroe Doctrine was born which cautioned the United States from tolerating further European colonization although Spain colony in Cuba was exempted. Cuba thus had been a colony of Spain for decades and Cubans were not happy with how Spaniards were treating them. As such, Cuban began their struggle for independence as early as 1868 and by 1897 the revolutions had gained momentum. The U.S being geographically close to Cuba and engaging in trade with it was sympathetic to its cause.8 Furthermore, U.S viewed itself as a defender of democracy and was not pleased with General Weyler’s treatment of Cubans and Americans living there. However, trouble escalated when the U.S battleship USS Maine exploded on February 15 1898 at Havana harbour in mysterious circumstances. The U.S blamed this on Spanish and gave President William McKinley motivation to ask Congress to declare war. The president was also under pressure from the business community to end the conflict in Cuba as it was affecting them; instability in Cuba meant economic instability in the U.S. Moreover, the newspaper (yellow press) under publication of Pulitzer and Hearst helped to spread the propaganda that Spain was to blame for the ship explosion hence aggravating the situation and inciting Americans to war. The Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt in preparation for war asked the Asiatic squadron to be ready to attack Spanish Navy in Philippines in case war broke out. Spanish got the news and began buying Brazilian warships prompting President McKinley in response to petition Congress for $50 million for defence.9 It was approved and U.S beat Spain into buying those ships in UK. Due to the above events, President McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain demanding Cuban independence and when it was ignored, the Congress acknowledged Cuba’s independence on April 20 thus severing diplomatic ties between U.S and Spain.10 The resolution included the Teller Amendment denying U.S right to annex Cuba but instead promote its democracy and independence. A naval blockade on Cuba was put up by McKinley on April 21 forcing Spain to declare war on U.S on April 23 while the Congress declared the war on April 25 leading to the beginning of the ten month battle. The first battle was fought at Manila Bay by the Asiatic squadron in Hong Kong under the command of Commodore George Dewey. The Spanish naval under command of Admiral Patricio Montojo lost this battle to the Asiatic squadron.11 The Spanish Navy was ill-trained and lacked war equipments since U.S had already bought the ships under construction hence the defeat. This enabled the U.S to capture Manila harbour hence have a local base to operate in hence the war was of economic importance to U.S. Later, the U.S navy bombarded San Juan in Puerto Rico even though the Spanish squadron was not there. The war in Philippines continued piting Spain with U.S and Filipino forces and in June 12, Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independent. The war continued in Cuba especially at Santiago de Cuba port and later Guantanamo Bay on June 10. The U.s Navy, Army and Cuban rebels were working together against Spanish troops. Guam was captured without any resistance as communication problems had hindering them from getting information about the war. Many battles were fought in Cuba in the month of July including San Juan Hill, Kettle Hill and Santiago de Cuba. Although the U.S troops and rough riders captured those places in the end, the battle was fierce since the Spanish had help of Cubans and were well versed with the terrain and had a good strategy of concealing itself from enemies.12The battle at Santiago de Cuba on July 3 was the largest and led to destruction of the Spanish Caribbean squadron as the U.S ships were larger and in good condition. Following major defeats, the Spanish government on July asked the French ambassador to U.S, Jules Cambon, to negotiate peace terms.13 On August 4, Spain agreed to American peace terms of declaring Cuba independent, cession of Puerto Rico to U.S. This marked the end of the war between America and Spain save for few battles in different places to curb Spanish resistance. The U.S forces were withdrawn from Cuba due to disease and poor conditions. However, the ninth black infantry regiment remained since it could withstand the situation. An armistice was signed on August 12. The battle of Manila on August 13 saw the capture of Manila city and the beginning of the Filipino-American war since the Philippines were against U.S control of the city.14 However, the Spanish-American war was over as the armistice was approved by Spanish legislature on September. On December 10, 1898 the U.S secretary of state John Hay signed the Treaty of Paris. Spain ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to U.S and sold its possession in Philippines (already an independent state) to U.S. In the end therefore, America emerged as an imperial power. The First World War The First World War also regarded as the Great War was fought between 1914 and 1918 by the great economic powers. It was a war between the Allied forces (UK, France, and Russia) with the assistance of U.S, Italy, and Japan and the central powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary) assisted by Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire on the other. The war ended with the defeat of central powers in 1918 and culminated into the formation of the League of Nations to maintain peace. The big question is; what caused such a devastating and intensive war? According to Berkin et al. there are many causes of such war. First, it was the secret political and military alliances between the European nations creating tensions and suspicions while at the same time ensuring balance of power.15 German and Austria-Hungary formed a dual alliance in 1879 against Russia so as to control the Balkans and later included Italy to form Triple alliance. To counter this, France and Russia entered the Franco-Russian alliance. Britain and France formed the France entente while Britain and Russia entered into Anglo-Russian convention or the Triple entente. As such, when the war broke out in 1914, there was no stopping the involvement of these nations due to such alliance hence escalating the war. Militarism was another major cause of the war. As one nation builds its military base, other nations get suspicious and follow suit leading to an arms race and eventually war. This was the case for Germany under Bismarck and Britain who were engaged in arms race in 1900s to outdo one another thus developing sophisticated weaponry including warships and dreadnoughts.16 The war involved use of deadly weapons such as poisonous gas and tanks. Others were driven by nationalism especially the Serbs and Russians but the main accelerator of the war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand the Archduke of Austria at Sarajevo on June 1914. This made Austria-Hungary to give an impractical ultimatum to Serbia culminating into declaration of war against Serbia.17 This prompted Russia a friend of Serbia to begin partial mobilization and consequently the issue of ultimatum by Germany to Russia to demobilize. Instead, Russia under Tsar Nicholas II began full mobilization on July 30 hence prompting Germany to declare war on Russia on August 1. What brought France and Britain into the war was German’s war plan (Schlieffen plan) which was to invade France through Belgium which was a neutral nation. As such, Britain declared war on Germany and the long battle began. During this time, America remained neutral until 1917. Berkin et al. asserts that America remained neutral due to its trade with the allies as well as central powers. Moreover, America had many immigrants from the nations involved in war especially Germany hence could not take a stand on who to support due to public sentiment.18 Besides, being a new world order, U.S remained neutral to ensure and maintain peace to belligerent nations. However, President Woodrow Wilson and most of his officers were pro-British mostly especially Wilson who envied the British form of government.19 It was a trying time for U.S especially with German U-boats trying to cut supplies between America and Britain by sinking ships such as RMS Lusitania in 1915. The U.S did not attack but made protests and made German promise to end such attacks. It was the Zimmerman Telegraph in 1917 that drove U.S into the war. The telegraph was captured by Britain on its way to Mexico from Germany urging Mexicans to support Germany in return for protection in case war broke out between U.S and Mexico and help it recover its territories. As such, the U.S Congress declared war on 6th April 1917. This was considered an attack on loyalty leading to lynching of Germans in America as evidenced by the lynching of German-born Robert Prager in Collinsville, Illinois on April 1918.20 Besides the telegraph, Woodrow Wilson war aims was “to make the world safe for democracy.”21He considered German leadership as autocracy which needed to be replaced with democracy hence his entry to war was justified. Furthermore, America was just safeguarding its economic interests as it sensed defeat of allied forces by central powers and if it did not intervene, things would go bad. However, it was not going to be a smooth ride to convince the public that war was justified. As such, a Committee on Public Information (CPI) under George Creel was formed to “manage news and solicit widespread support for the war at home and abroad.”22The use of propaganda through posters, theatre, newspapers, poems, songs and speeches by Four Minute Men helped spread war propaganda and gain support for the war. The public was also enticed to volunteer as soldiers or in any way they could to help in the war effort. They were encouraged to buy stamps, exercise control hence reduce spending and attend to wounded soldiers through these propagandas.23For example, a speech by Four Minute Man regarded Germans as a spy to be avoided and reported if necessary. The poem “Its Duty Boy” urged men to recruit in the army so as to gain respect, pride and honour from their fellow countrymen and parents while the advert on patriotic housekeeping urged women to participate fully in the war effort.24The food administration thus urged women to conserve food through voluntary rationing and avoiding wastage to feed the allied armies as “food will win the war.”25 Many Americans of all races enlisted in the war and on November, 1918 German surrendered by signing an armistice and the war was over. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 1919 and included formation of the League of Nations to keep peace and thus ending the Great War. The economy of America grew due to war productions and effort put by Americans in the war. Women gained a place in the society as they could take up jobs and could demand for their rights. However, many casualties were experienced leading to negative sentiments about U.S entry into the war in the first place. References Berkin, C., Miller, C., Cherny, R., Gormly, J & Egerton, D. Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: Since 1865. 5ed. (Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010), p. 430. Curnbise, Alfred E. War as Advertised: The Four Minute Men and America’s Crusade, 1917-1918. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984. George Creel, CPI, Four Minute Men. Committee on Public Information, Four Minute Men Bulletin 1, May 22, 1917 “Get the Rope!” Anti-German Violence in World War I Era, Wisconsin. Friedrich Von Benhardi. Social Darwinism, 1912. Norfolk Journal and Guide, March 3, 1917. The Wages of Manifest Destiny (or, How the Sioux Lost Their Culture): The Vanishing American. “Wanted: Recruits for an Army of Kitchen Soldiers,” Good Housekeeping, December 1917. Read More