Strategies of the Roman Empire - Literature review Example

Strategies of the Roman Empire: This paper focuses on the reigns of Augustus Caesar, and whether his reign followed the principles of aggressive conquest or defensive imperialism. In meeting the objectives of this paper, this research will explain what these two concepts entail, and their differences. This paper would also compare the leadership strategy of Augustus Caser, based on either one of these two concepts with other emperors of Rome. This is with the main aim of trying to establish whether the strategy of defensive imperialism or aggressive conquest affected the expansion, stability of the collapse of Rome. This paper takes a stand that, the leadership of Augustus Caesar was aggressive conquest. Augustus Caesar was born on the 23rd of September, in the year 63 BC in the Roman Republic (Morley, 43). He was born under the name of Gaius Octavius. He was the nephew of Julius Caesar, and he was able to inherit his wealth and title, after his death. Augustus Caesar gained political authority in Rome, after his army defeated Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. It is important to understand that Mark Anthony was the sole threat to the ascension to power of Gaus Octavian (Wilkinson, 11). Barrett (463) explains that different emperors who ruled Rome had different foreign affairs strategies. However, their foreign affairs were based on two major strategies, and it was either defensive imperialism, or aggressive conquest. Defensive imperialism refers to the wars or foreign relation policies developed by Roman empires with the main aim of protecting the empire from invasion. Examples of wars conducted for purposes of defense include the war with the King of Epirus, King Pyrrhus, the Punic wars, and the Hannibalic wars (Fuhrmann, 53). For instance, the Hannibalic war took place between the years 218 to 201 BC, and Rome was forced into this war when Saguntum, a province under its protection was attacked by Hannibal, a Carthagian general. On the other hand, aggressive conquests were wars initiated by the Roman Empire with the main aim of expanding their empires (Morley, 37). It is important to denote that under Roman leadership, victory in wars was a highly valued honor, and to obtain this honor various Emperors embarked on wars for the main aim of expanding their territories. This would be a guarantee that the Emperor under consideration would manage to achieve respect and honor. Furthermore, it is important to understand that Roman generals who managed to excel in warfare were highly respected and valued by the Roman people and senate. For example, General Germinicus Julius Caesar was able to gain great respect and honor amongst the Romans for his conquest wars of the German barbaric tribes (Morley, 16). Example of wars of conquest includes the war with King Philip the 5th of Macedonia, and King Antiochus the 3rd of Syria. To fully understand the foreign policies of Augustus Caesar, it is important to understand the manner in which he took power in Rome. To become the 1st Roman Empire, Augustus Caesar had to exterminate all his potential rivals, and this includes Mark Anthony, the Roman general who served under Julius Caesar. Augustus Caesar had to convince the senate to wage war against Egypt under the leadership of Cleopatra. This was a war against Mark Anthony, mainly because Egypt was under his protection (Morley, 24). This was the first war of conquest that Mark Anthony initiated, and the aim was to conquer Egypt and exterminate all his rivals to the throne of Rome. It is important to denote that Augustus was successful in this initiative, and he managed to take Egypt, and upon his coronation as an Emperor, he made Egypt his special province that was not governed by a Governor, but by a special prefect appointed by him. This prefect was directly answerable to Caesar, and thus ensuring his absolute control of Egypt. It is important to denote that Egypt was very special and important to Augustus, mainly because it had the treasures and resources that enabled him to pay his army. Barrett (462) explains that it was a rule that anytime the legions of Augustus Caesar conquered any place, these were able to invoke the name of his title, and called him the supreme commander. Through this law, Augustus Caesar wanted to be associated with every victory his soldiers were able to acquire. Roth (188) further explains that by the year 12 BC, Augustus Caesar managed to conquer at least 21 territories, and in all these territories, his armies proclaimed the title, supreme commander. Furthermore, Augustus was able to promote the concept that the ways of life of the Romans were superior when compared to other ways of life. Furthermore, the emperor believed that the Romans were given the task and duty of ruling the entire world (Wilkinson, 39). Fuhrmann (53) explains that Augustus believed that to rule the world, the Romans had to use strength. It is based on this philosophy that the armies of Augustus Caesar were encouraged and motivated to invade new areas that were not under the jurisdiction of the Roman Empire. Gibbon (53) explains that one of the major characteristics of a state that engages in an aggressive conquest is a tendency of developing policies aimed at making the citizens of the state under consideration as superior to the citizens of other states. In proving this assertion, Fuhrmann (56) gives the example of Hitler and his Nazi policy. Grey (155) denotes that Germans under Hitler believed that they were the superior race, and hence any race that existed on earth must be subjected to the leadership of the Germans. This was the major reason as to why Hitler persecuted the Jews, and invaded neighboring countries for purposes of making them to be under the leadership of Germany (Gibbon, 33). This was one of the major causes of the Second World War. By believing that they were superior to other people, it was very difficult to find soldiers under the command of Augustus Caesar surrendering in battle, or negotiating for a peace treaty, based on a point of weakness. Kelly (55) explains that not all wars of conquest by Augustus Caesar were through military action. In supporting this assertion, Gibbon (27) gives an example of Galatia, the modern day Turkey. This region was peacefully converted into the province of Rome, after the death of Amyntas, the ruler of Galatia. Grey (155) argues that Augustus was able to convert the region of Galatia into a province of Rome, mainly because Galatia did not have the military capability of resisting the Roman pressure. On this basis, the leadership of Galatia had to sign a treaty, making them under the protection of Rome; as a result, they had to surrender any political claim to the leadership of Galatia. Gibbon (39) further argues that by the time that Augustus was dying, he had managed to conquer Northern Hispania, which are the present day Portugal, Spain, the Alpine regions, Pannonia and Illyricum, which are the modern day Croatia, Hungary, Albania, Serbia, and the countries of Eastern Europe. Gibbon (61) further explains that the Emperor managed to extend his empire to the Southern and Eastern regions of Africa. Grey (155) believes that the policies of Augustus Caesar were not aggressive conquests, but defensive imperialism. In supporting this argument, Gibbon (43) gives an example of the negotiations between Augustus Caesar and the king of Parthia, in the year 37 BC. Under these negotiations, Augustus was seeking a return of the Roman properties that were lost by Crassus in his battle against the Parthians. Kelly (51) explains that these negotiations were a symbolic victory to the Romans, and it helped to increase the morale of the Roman soldiers. However, Gibbon (61) explains that Augustus manipulated these negotiations, to his own advantage giving a propaganda that the King of Parthia was under the subjection of his rule. Benton and Benjamin (11) further asserts that for purposes of protecting the Roman emperor from the Parthian attacks, the emperor created client states to act as a buffer against such an attack. Furthermore, Augustus sent his son Tiberius to protect the Eastern parts of the empire stationing his army in Syria. Fuhrmann (33) explains that these were signs that the policies of Augustus were defensive in nature. However, Benton and Benjamin (23) disagree with this argument. Fuhrmann (37) denotes that Augustus only entered into a diplomatic association with the Parthian King, because his Kingdom was strong, and he had the capability of defeating a Roman attack. This is proved by his victory against Crassus in the battle of Carrhae. Furthermore, the claim that the King of Parthia was under his subjection after the negotiations is an indication that Augustus Caesar was mainly interested in expanding Roman influence and territory. Fuhrmann (39) explains that this strategy of Augustus was able to stabilize Rome. During his reign, despite the wars of conquest, Rome was able to enjoy prosperity and relative peace. This is a concept that is commonly referred to as Pax Romana. Benton and Benjamin (13) explains that despite the continuous wars of imperial expansion initiated by Augustus, the Roman world was very peaceful, and prosperous. It was free from a large scale conflict that characterized it before he became the first emperor of Rome. Gibbon (27) explains that he was able to secure Rome by creating client states, and making peace with the Parthian empire through diplomatic negotiations. Furthermore, Fuhrmann (41) explains that due to this peace enjoyed by the Roman empire, Augustus Caesar was able to reform the taxation system of Rome, build a network of roads, create a standing and professional army, create a police force, and a fire fighting service. These were major achievements by Augustus Caesar, that upon his death, he denoted that he was able to acquire Rome when it was mad, but he is now leaving it, when it is marble (Benton and Benjamin, 22). The immediate successor of Augustus Caesar was Tiberius. The reign of Tiberius was peaceful, mainly because he did not engage in any wars of conquest. In fact, Tiberius retired to the Island of Rhodes, and left the senate to manage the affairs of the state. This policy by Tiberius was disastrous, mainly because it cause political instability in Rome. His reign saw the mutiny of the army in Germania and Pannonia, mainly because of lack of payment of their salaries and bonuses, and it was also characterized by trials of treason that was brought about by a plot to overturn him that was led by the head of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus (Kelly, 31). It is important to understand that during his reign, Rome was so unstable, and vulnerable to a civil war. Executions were common, and Tiberius ordered the death of anyone who was suspected of associating with Sejanus. Tiberius was succeeded by Caligula, and upon his death, the Romans rejoiced, and the senate refused to give him the honor that was given to Augustus Caesar. The successor of Tiberius was Gaus Caligula. The policy initiated by Gaus Caligula was defensive imperialism. Gaus Caligula did not engage in wars of expanding the Roman Empire, what he did was to assassinate the rule of Mauretania, and divide the Kingdom into two provinces (Kelly, 29). The decision by Caligula was aimed at protecting the Roman Empire from attacks and rebellions from the Tacfarinas. On this basis, the annexation of Mauretania was not a response ion solving the military and economic problems that Rome was facing at the time (Kelly, 51). These policies by Gaus Caligula was unable to maintain the stability of Rome, as a result, Rome faced a series of revolts and riots. For example, in the Eastern territories of Rome, the Roman Empire was faced with riots mainly because of the spread of the Roman law, the Greek Culture, and the right of the Jews in the empire. In quelling these rebellions, Gaus Caligula sought the help of Herod Agrippa, one of his loyal servants. It is important to denote that during the reign of Gaus Caligula, the Roman Empire was not stable, and the senate was not happy by his leadership. This led to his assassination, and the attempt of the senate to resort back to the Republican Rome. Barrett (461) explains that the policy initiated by the Roman emperors on defensive imperialism or aggressive conquests depended mostly on the situation of Rome. For instance, Emperor Gaus Caligula and Tiberius ruled during the periods in which there were no wars, or new territories to conquer. However, they were faced with internal rebellions which had to be quashed to ensure the survival of Rome. Claudius, the he successor of Gaus Caligula initiated the policy of aggressive conquest. During his reign, Claudius was able to complete the annexation of Mauritania, Britain, the provinces of Lycia, Thrace, Pamphylia, etc. Benton and Benjamin (17) explain that since the death of Augustus Caesar, it is only the reign of Claudius that saw political stability and expansion of the Roman Empire. He built roads and canals for purposes of improving the transportation of Rome, he reformed the judicial and the legislative system, and improved the production of food by encouraging irrigation, increasing land that could be used for agricultural purposes and abolishing taxes placed on the production of food. Nero on the other hand, pursued a policy of defensive imperialism (Kelly, 43). This policy was aimed at protecting his reign and the authority of Rome. For instance, he created Armenia as a buffer zone against the attacks of Parthia. This was after a costly war, between Rome and Armenia. However, he was unsuccessful, and his reign was marked with political instability and executions. For instance, in 60 AD, a rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia, and the revolution by Galba and Vindex which led to his death and overthrow (Pearson, 77). In conclusion, the Roman Empire was characterized by the strategies of defensive imperialism and aggressive conquest. One of the empires who initiated the policy of aggressive conquests was Emperor Augustus Caesar. The intention of Augustus was to expand the Roman Empire, as well as initiate policies aimed at promoting stability and economic growth of Rome. Augustus was successful in this initiative, that upon his death, he was greatly mourned by the Roman people. This is as opposed to Tiberius and Caligula, who upon their death, the Roman people greatly rejoiced. This is because during their reigns, Rome was characterized by political and economic instability. These two emperors pursued a policy of defensive imperialism, and it was aimed at protecting the territories of Rome, and their leadership. It is important to understand that the major reason for the wars of conquest pursued by the Augustus was based on the notion that the Romans were superior individuals, and hence, they had to rule over other people. Furthermore, the Roman Empire had a militaristic culture, and it valued military success and achievements. On this note, the wars of conquest initiated by Augustus Caesar and Claudius were aimed at protecting their military values, and accessing the benefits that came with a successful war, which included economic benefits, as well as territorial benefits. Emperors who pursued the strategy of defensive imperialism were always faced with political instability and revolts against their leadership. These strategies were therefore aimed at protecting their leadership and authority. Works Cited: Barrett, Anthony A.. "Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire by Josiah Osgood (review)." Mouseion: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada 10.3 (2010): 461-463. Print. Benton, Lauren, and Benjamin Straumann. "Acquiring Empire by Law: From Roman Doctrine to Early Modern European Practice." Law and History Review 28.01 (2010): 1-38. Print. Fuhrmann, Christopher J.. Policing the Roman Empire: soldiers, administration, and public order. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print. Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Boston: MobileReference.com, 2010. Print. Grey, Cam. "Contextualizing Colonatus: The Origo of the Late Roman Empire." Journal of Roman Studies 97 (2007): 155. Print. Kelly, Christopher. Ruling the later Roman Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of HarvardUniversity Press, 2004. Print. Morley, Neville. The Roman Empire roots of imperialism. London: Pluto Press ;, 2010. Print. Pearson, Monte. Perils of empire the Roman republic and the American republic. New York: Algora Pub., 2008. Print. Roth, Roman. "De Ligt (L.), Hemelrijk (E.A.), Singor (H.W.) (edd.) Roman Rule and Civic Life: Local and Regional Perspectives. Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop of the International Network ‘Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, c. 200 B.C. – A.D. 476), Leiden, June 25–28, 2003. (Impact of Empire 4.) Pp. xviii + 448, figs, maps, pls. Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben, 2004. Cased, ???128. ISBN: 978-90-5063-418-2.." The Classical Review 57.01 (2007): 188. Print. Wilkinson, Sam. Republicanism during the early Roman Empire. London: Continuum, 2012. Print. Read More